دانلود مقاله درباره متن عکس گرافیکی (معماری)

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تعداد صفحات: 28

عکس - گرافیک

یکی از شاخه های جالب عکاسی که طرفداران زیادی هم دارد، عکس - گرافیک ها هستند. یعنی عکسهایی که با ابزارهای خاص بر روی آنها کار شده و چیزی بین عکس و گرافیک صرف تبدیل شده اند. معمولا در این عکسها برای بیان موضوعی خاص، از انواع تغییرات گرافیکی اعم از تغییر رنگ کلی یا ناحیه ای، تغییر کیفیت، یا افزودن المانهای خاص گرافیکی به عکس و ... کمک گرفته می شود. این شاخه از عکاسی از قدیم نیز وجود داشته و بیشتر توسط عکاسانی صورت می گرفته که خودشان در کار چاپ عکس فعال بوده اند و در لابراتور با انواع فیلترها و روشها ، تغییرات مورد نظر عکاس بر روی عکس اعمال می شده است.

ریک پوینر یکی از مهم ترین و تیزبین ترین منتقدین و نویسندگان گرافیک در جهان است . پوینر در ویژه نامه صدمین شماره مجله Creative Review مقاله ای درباره رضا عابدینی ، زندگی ، آثار و دیدگاه هایش نگاشته است که ترجمه آنرا می خوانید.

در حالی‌که طراحی گرافیک در غرب، امکان ظهور در فرم‌های مختلف هنری را داراست، افکار، محرک‌ها و اهداف پشت سر آن معمولاً همان راه‌های رفته را طی می‌کنند.

برای یک طراح از لندن، پاریس یا نیویورک آسان است که با این تعاریف که طراحی گرافیک چیست؟ به چه کار می‌آید و یا می‌تواند فراتر از مرزها حرکت کند، کنار بیاید.آثار طراح ایرانی، رضا عابدینی، عمق این محدوده‌ها را مشخص می‌کند. عابدینی کارش را با تمرکز و احاطه‌ی کامل انجام می‌دهد و برای هر بیننده‌ای که با رسانه گرافیک آشنا باشد، ستودنی است. عابدینی گاهی تردید می‌کند که آثارش قدیمی یا از نگاه بیننده غربی ساده انگارانه به نظر آید.

شیوه تفکر یا معنایی که طرح‌های عابدینی با خود حمل می‌کند حسی از تاریخ و فرهنگی متفاوت را عرضه می‌کند. طرح‌هایی که از دیدگاه جامعه سکولار اروپایی و احتمالاً جامعه ایرانی تازه و نو هستند.

عابدینی شاخص‌ترین طراح نسل نوجوی گرافیک ایران است که از اواخر دهه نود مطرح گردید. در بریتانیا که تمام دریافت‌ها از ایران محدود به فعالیت‌های هسته‌ای دولت است هنوز شناختی نسبت به این نسل از طراحان ایرانی وجود ندارد. در سال ۲۰۰۳ آثار عابدینی در مجموعه Area از انتشارات Phaidon به همراه صد طراح بین‌المللی به چاپ رسید. سال گذشته نیز، عابدینی کتاب «فرهنگ تصویری معاصر ایران» را در جهت عکس تبلیغات جهانی منفی علیه ایران منتشر کرد. این کتاب شامل تصویرسازی، عکاسی و گرافیک معاصر ایران به همراه تعدادی از آثار عابدینی بود.

وی همچنین جایزه یکصد هزار یورویی بنیاد پرنس کلاوس هلند را کسب نمود. این جایزه هر سال به یک هنرمند تأثیرگذار غیر غربی تعلق می‌گیرد و این نخستین باری بود که یک طراح گرافیک این جایزه را دریافت می‌کرد.

من رضا عابدینی را بعد از مراسم اهدای جایزه در آمستردام ملاقات کردم. عابدینی درباره آثارش صحبت کرد. او متشخص، با ادب و جدی است و ریش بلندش جذبه خاصی به او بخشیده است. سخنرانی روز گذشته او با تصویری از بدن انسان به مثابه پل، به پایان رسید. «در اعتقادات ایرانیان، بدن انسان جهانی کوچک است. جایی که کلمات هبوط می‌کنند، همان‌گونه که من سعی دارم در آثارم نشان دهم. از این‌رو بدن انسان مقدس است، مانند کلمات که مقدس هستند و بدن انسان گذرگاهی است برای عبور معانی به واسطه آن.» این عبارات، کلیدی برای ورود به دنیای رضا عابدینی ارائه می‌کنند و من می‌خواستم تا بیشتر بدانم.

عابدینی ۳۹ ساله، استودیویی با سه همکار- دو نفر از آن‌ها شاگردان‌اش هستند- در تهران دارد. در پروژه‌هایی مانند گرافیک متحرک یا تیتراژهای تلویزیونی، گروه او بزرگ‌تر هم می‌شود. او از قرار ملاقات‌ها و قراردادها گریزان است و وقتش را برای طراحی پوستر و کتاب و مجلات متمرکز می‌کند. دو روز از هفته را در دانشگاه تهران تدریس می‌کند.بعد از فارغ‌التصیلی از هنرستان هنرهای تجسمی، جایی که برنامه‌ریزی آموزشی بر اصول باهاوس پایه‌ریزی شده است، عابدینی براساس یک اشتباه در پر کردن فرم امتحان ورودی دانشگاه، ناچار می‌شود برای تحصیل در رشته مرمت آثار باستانی به شهر اصفهان برود. این توفیق اجباری، او را به شهری زیبا و تاریخ می‌کشاند که دیوار مساجدش با کاشی‌های زیبایی از شاهکارهای خوشنویسی پوشانده شده است. از نزدیک با هنر و معماری اصیل ایرانی آشنا می‌شود در حالی‌که پیش از آن ارتباطی با میراث گذشتگان خود نداشت.«در طول تحصیلات گذشته‌ام هیچ شناختی از سنت تصویری‌مان نداشتم»

دانلود تحقیق درمورد امام علی متن انگلیسی به همراه ترجمه 8 ص

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فرمت فایل word  و قابل ویرایش و پرینت

تعداد صفحات: 8

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE LIVES OF THE FIRST IMAM

Amir al-mu’minin Ali -- upon whom be peace —was the son of Abu Talib, the shaykh of the Banu Hashim. Abu Talib was the uncle and guardian of the Holy Prophet and the person who had brought the Prophet to his house and raised him like his own son.

After the Prophet was chosen for his prophetic mission, Abu Talib continued to support him and repelled from him the evil that camefrome the infidels among the Arabs and especially the Quraysh. According to well-known traditional accounts Ali was born ten Years before the commencement of the prophetic mission of the Prophet. When six years old, as a result of famine in and around Mecca, he was requested by the Prophet to leave his father’s house and come to the house of his cousin, the Prophet. There he was placed directly under the guardianship and custody of the holy prophet.

A few years later, when the prophet was endowed with the Divine gift of prophecy and for the first time recevied the Divine revelation in the cave of Hira, as he left the cave to return to town and his own house he met Ali on the way. He told him what had happenend and Ali accepted the new faith. Again in a gathering when the Holy Prophet had brought his relatives together and invited them to accept his religion, he said the first person to accept his call would be his vicegerent and inheritor and deputy. The only person to rise from his place and accept the faith was Ali and the prophet accepted his declaration of faith. Therefore Ali Was the first man in Islam to accept the faith and is the first among the followers of the Prophet to have never worshiped other than the One God.

Ali was always in the company of the Prophet until the Prophet migrated from Mecca to Medina. On the night of the migration to Medina (hijrah) when the infidels had surrounded the house of the Prophet and were determined to invade the house at the end of the night and cut him to pieces while he was in bed. Ali slept in place of the Prophet while the Prophet left the house and set out for Medina.after the departure of the Prophet, according to his wish Ali gave back to the people the trusts and charges that they had left with the Prophet. Then he went to Medina with his Mother, the daughter of the Prophet, and two other women.

In Medina also Ali was constantly in the company of the Prophet in private and in Poblic. The Prophet gave Fatimah, his beloved daughter from Khadijah, to Ali as his wife and when the Prophet was creating bonds of brotherhood among his companions he selected Ali as his brother.

Ali was present in all the wars in which the Prophet participated, except the battle of Tabuk when he was ordered to stay in Medina in place of the Prophet. He did not retreat in any battle nor did he turn his face away from any enemy. He never disobeyed the Prophet, so that the Prophet said,” Ali is never separated from the Truth nor the Truth from Ali” .

On the day of the death of the Prophet,Ali was thirty-three years old. Although he was foremoset in religious virtues and the Most outstanding among the companions of the Prophet, he was pushed aside from the caliphate on the claim that he was too young and that he had many enemies among the people because of the blood of the polytheists he had spilled in the wars fought alongside the Prophet. Terefore Ali was almost completely cut off from public affairs. He retreated to his house where he began to train competent individuals in the Divine scieneces and in this way he passed the twenty-five years of the caliphate of the first three caliphs who succeeded the Prophet. When the third caliph was killed, people gave their allegiance to him and he was chosen as caliph.

During his caliphate of nearly four years and nine months, Ali followed the way of the Prophet and gave his caliphate the from of a spiritual movement and renewal and began many different types of reforms. Naturally, these reforms were against the interests of certain parties that sought their own benefit. As a result, a group of the companions (foremost among whom were Talhah and Zubayr, who also gained the support of A’ishah, and especially Mu’awiyah) made a pretext of the death of the third caliph to raise their heads in opposition and began to revolt and rebel against Ali.

In order to quell the civil strife and sedition, Ali fought a war near Basra, known as the “Battle of the camel,” against Talhah and Zubayr in which A’ishah, “the Mother of the Faithful,” was also involved he fought another war against Mu’awiyah on theborder of Iraq and Syria which lasted for a year and a half and is famous as the “Battle of Siffin”. He also fought against the Khawarij at Nahrawan, in a battle known as the “Battle of Nahrawan.” Therefore, most of the days of Ali’s caliphate were spent in overcoming internal opposition. Finally, in the morning of the 19th of Ramadan in the year 40 A.H, while praying in the mosque of Kufa, he was wounded by one of the Khawarij and died as a martyr during the night of the 21st.

According to the testimony of friend and foe alike, Ali had no shortcomings from the point of view of human perfection. And in the Islamic virtues he was a perfect example of the upbringing and training given by the Prophet. The discussions that have taken place concerning his personality and the books written on this subject by Shi’ites, Sunnis and members of other religions, as well as the simply curious outside any distinct religious bodies, are hardly equaled in the case of any other personality in history.

In science and knowledge Ali was the most learned of the companions of the Prophet, and of Muslims in general. In his learned discourses he was the first in Islam to open the door for logical demonstraction and proof and to discuss the “divine sciences” or metaphysics (ma’arifi ilahiyah). He spoke concerning the esoteric aspect of the Quran and devised Arabic grammar in order to preserve the Quran’s from of expression. He was the most eloquent Arab in speech (as has been mentioned in the first part of this book)

The courage of Ali was proverbial. In all the wars in which he participated during the lifetime of the Prophet, and also afterward, he never displayed fear or anxiety. Although in many battles such as those of Uhud,Hunayn,Khaybar and Khandaq the aides to the Prophet and the Muslim army trembled in fear or dispersed and fled, he never turned his back to the enemy. Never did a warrior or soldier engage Ali in battle and come out of it alive.Yet, with full chivalry he would never slay a week enemy nor pursue those who fled. He would not engage in surprise attacks or in turning streams of water upon the enemy. It has been definitively established historicall that in the Battle of Khaybar in the attack against the fort he reached the ring of the door and with sudden motion tore off the door and cast it away.

Also on the day when Mecca was conquered the Prophet ordered the idols to be broken. The idol “Hubal” was the largest idole in Mecca, a giant stone statue placed on the top of the Ka’bah. Following the command of the Prophet, Ali Placed his feet on the Prophet’s shoulders, climbed to the top of the Ka’bah, pulled “Hubal” from its place and cast it down.

Ali was also without equal in religious asceticism and the worship of God.

In answer to some who had complained of Ali’s anger toward them, the Prophet said, “Do not reproach Ali for he is in a state of Divine ecstasy and bewilderment.” Abu Darda one of the companions, one day saw the body of Ali in one of the palm plantations of Medina lying on the ground as stiff as wood. He went to Ali’s house to infrom his noble wife, the daughter of the Prophet, and to express his condolences. The daughter of the Prophet said, “My cousin (Ali) Has not died. Rather,in fear of God he has fainted. This condition overcomes him often.”

There are many stories told of Ali’s kindness to the lowly compassion for the needy and the poor, and generosity and munificence toward those in misery and poverty. Ali spent all that he earned to help the poor and the needy, and himself lived in the strictest and simplest manner. Ali loved agriculture and spent much of his time digging wells, planting trees and cultivating fields. But all the fields that he cultivated or wells that he built he gave in endowment (waqf) to the poor. His endowments, known as the “alms of Ali,” had the noteworthy in come of twenty-four thousand gold dinars toward the end of his life.

اجمالی از تاریخ زندگی امام علی (ع)

حضرت امیرالمومنین علی علیه السلام ، وی فرزند ابوطالب شیخ بنی هاشم عموی پیغمبر اکرم (ص) بود که پیغمبر اکرم را سرپرستی

امام علی متن انگلیسی به همراه ترجمه 8 ص

لینک دانلود و خرید پایین توضیحات

فرمت فایل word  و قابل ویرایش و پرینت

تعداد صفحات: 8

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE LIVES OF THE FIRST IMAM

Amir al-mu’minin Ali -- upon whom be peace —was the son of Abu Talib, the shaykh of the Banu Hashim. Abu Talib was the uncle and guardian of the Holy Prophet and the person who had brought the Prophet to his house and raised him like his own son.

After the Prophet was chosen for his prophetic mission, Abu Talib continued to support him and repelled from him the evil that camefrome the infidels among the Arabs and especially the Quraysh. According to well-known traditional accounts Ali was born ten Years before the commencement of the prophetic mission of the Prophet. When six years old, as a result of famine in and around Mecca, he was requested by the Prophet to leave his father’s house and come to the house of his cousin, the Prophet. There he was placed directly under the guardianship and custody of the holy prophet.

A few years later, when the prophet was endowed with the Divine gift of prophecy and for the first time recevied the Divine revelation in the cave of Hira, as he left the cave to return to town and his own house he met Ali on the way. He told him what had happenend and Ali accepted the new faith. Again in a gathering when the Holy Prophet had brought his relatives together and invited them to accept his religion, he said the first person to accept his call would be his vicegerent and inheritor and deputy. The only person to rise from his place and accept the faith was Ali and the prophet accepted his declaration of faith. Therefore Ali Was the first man in Islam to accept the faith and is the first among the followers of the Prophet to have never worshiped other than the One God.

Ali was always in the company of the Prophet until the Prophet migrated from Mecca to Medina. On the night of the migration to Medina (hijrah) when the infidels had surrounded the house of the Prophet and were determined to invade the house at the end of the night and cut him to pieces while he was in bed. Ali slept in place of the Prophet while the Prophet left the house and set out for Medina.after the departure of the Prophet, according to his wish Ali gave back to the people the trusts and charges that they had left with the Prophet. Then he went to Medina with his Mother, the daughter of the Prophet, and two other women.

In Medina also Ali was constantly in the company of the Prophet in private and in Poblic. The Prophet gave Fatimah, his beloved daughter from Khadijah, to Ali as his wife and when the Prophet was creating bonds of brotherhood among his companions he selected Ali as his brother.

Ali was present in all the wars in which the Prophet participated, except the battle of Tabuk when he was ordered to stay in Medina in place of the Prophet. He did not retreat in any battle nor did he turn his face away from any enemy. He never disobeyed the Prophet, so that the Prophet said,” Ali is never separated from the Truth nor the Truth from Ali” .

On the day of the death of the Prophet,Ali was thirty-three years old. Although he was foremoset in religious virtues and the Most outstanding among the companions of the Prophet, he was pushed aside from the caliphate on the claim that he was too young and that he had many enemies among the people because of the blood of the polytheists he had spilled in the wars fought alongside the Prophet. Terefore Ali was almost completely cut off from public affairs. He retreated to his house where he began to train competent individuals in the Divine scieneces and in this way he passed the twenty-five years of the caliphate of the first three caliphs who succeeded the Prophet. When the third caliph was killed, people gave their allegiance to him and he was chosen as caliph.

During his caliphate of nearly four years and nine months, Ali followed the way of the Prophet and gave his caliphate the from of a spiritual movement and renewal and began many different types of reforms. Naturally, these reforms were against the interests of certain parties that sought their own benefit. As a result, a group of the companions (foremost among whom were Talhah and Zubayr, who also gained the support of A’ishah, and especially Mu’awiyah) made a pretext of the death of the third caliph to raise their heads in opposition and began to revolt and rebel against Ali.

In order to quell the civil strife and sedition, Ali fought a war near Basra, known as the “Battle of the camel,” against Talhah and Zubayr in which A’ishah, “the Mother of the Faithful,” was also involved he fought another war against Mu’awiyah on theborder of Iraq and Syria which lasted for a year and a half and is famous as the “Battle of Siffin”. He also fought against the Khawarij at Nahrawan, in a battle known as the “Battle of Nahrawan.” Therefore, most of the days of Ali’s caliphate were spent in overcoming internal opposition. Finally, in the morning of the 19th of Ramadan in the year 40 A.H, while praying in the mosque of Kufa, he was wounded by one of the Khawarij and died as a martyr during the night of the 21st.

According to the testimony of friend and foe alike, Ali had no shortcomings from the point of view of human perfection. And in the Islamic virtues he was a perfect example of the upbringing and training given by the Prophet. The discussions that have taken place concerning his personality and the books written on this subject by Shi’ites, Sunnis and members of other religions, as well as the simply curious outside any distinct religious bodies, are hardly equaled in the case of any other personality in history.

In science and knowledge Ali was the most learned of the companions of the Prophet, and of Muslims in general. In his learned discourses he was the first in Islam to open the door for logical demonstraction and proof and to discuss the “divine sciences” or metaphysics (ma’arifi ilahiyah). He spoke concerning the esoteric aspect of the Quran and devised Arabic grammar in order to preserve the Quran’s from of expression. He was the most eloquent Arab in speech (as has been mentioned in the first part of this book)

The courage of Ali was proverbial. In all the wars in which he participated during the lifetime of the Prophet, and also afterward, he never displayed fear or anxiety. Although in many battles such as those of Uhud,Hunayn,Khaybar and Khandaq the aides to the Prophet and the Muslim army trembled in fear or dispersed and fled, he never turned his back to the enemy. Never did a warrior or soldier engage Ali in battle and come out of it alive.Yet, with full chivalry he would never slay a week enemy nor pursue those who fled. He would not engage in surprise attacks or in turning streams of water upon the enemy. It has been definitively established historicall that in the Battle of Khaybar in the attack against the fort he reached the ring of the door and with sudden motion tore off the door and cast it away.

Also on the day when Mecca was conquered the Prophet ordered the idols to be broken. The idol “Hubal” was the largest idole in Mecca, a giant stone statue placed on the top of the Ka’bah. Following the command of the Prophet, Ali Placed his feet on the Prophet’s shoulders, climbed to the top of the Ka’bah, pulled “Hubal” from its place and cast it down.

Ali was also without equal in religious asceticism and the worship of God.

In answer to some who had complained of Ali’s anger toward them, the Prophet said, “Do not reproach Ali for he is in a state of Divine ecstasy and bewilderment.” Abu Darda one of the companions, one day saw the body of Ali in one of the palm plantations of Medina lying on the ground as stiff as wood. He went to Ali’s house to infrom his noble wife, the daughter of the Prophet, and to express his condolences. The daughter of the Prophet said, “My cousin (Ali) Has not died. Rather,in fear of God he has fainted. This condition overcomes him often.”

There are many stories told of Ali’s kindness to the lowly compassion for the needy and the poor, and generosity and munificence toward those in misery and poverty. Ali spent all that he earned to help the poor and the needy, and himself lived in the strictest and simplest manner. Ali loved agriculture and spent much of his time digging wells, planting trees and cultivating fields. But all the fields that he cultivated or wells that he built he gave in endowment (waqf) to the poor. His endowments, known as the “alms of Ali,” had the noteworthy in come of twenty-four thousand gold dinars toward the end of his life.

اجمالی از تاریخ زندگی امام علی (ع)

حضرت امیرالمومنین علی علیه السلام ، وی فرزند ابوطالب شیخ بنی هاشم عموی پیغمبر اکرم (ص) بود که پیغمبر اکرم را سرپرستی

درختان میوه

لینک دانلود و خرید پایین توضیحات

فرمت فایل word  و قابل ویرایش و پرینت

تعداد صفحات: 25

ترجمه متن درختان میوه

نام استاد : دکتر عزیز سلطان

دانشجو: محمّد رضا قلمکار

(ترجمه متن صفحة 158)

درخت آقطی درختی است از انواع زمستان خواب، آقطعی معمولی بومی نواحی اروپا، غرب آسیا و مناطقی از شمال آفریقا می‌باشد، و هم‌اکنون بصورت وحشی در مناطق وسیعی از آمریکا و کانادا می‌روید. میوه‌های سیاه و ارغوانی درخشان این درخت بصورت گسترده‌‌ای در انواع مربّا مصرف می‌‌گردد؛ و هم گل و هم میوة آن شهرت زیادی در تهیة شراب دارند. بلندی این گیاه به بلندی بک درخچة بزرگ و یا یک درخت کوچک می‌رسد و در باغ به عنوان یک درخچة وحشی و مقاوم کاشته می‌شود شاخه‌های جوان این گیاه از خود بوی نامطبوعی متصاعد می‌کنند که در گذشته به عنوان دور کنندة حشرات مورد استفاده قرار می‌گرفت. در شمال آمریکا، گونة آمریکائییا آقطی شیرین بصورت وسیعی پرورش یافته است و چندین گونة اصلاح شده آن در دسترس می‌باشد.

رشد و نمو: تمشک آقطی سیاه فقط بخاطر میوة آن پرورش می‌یابد و نوع قرمز این میوه غیر خوراکی می‌باشد.

خاک و موقعیت کاشت: درخت آقطی با انواع خاک با گستره‌ای از PH سازگار است، حتی خاکهائی که بسرعت آب خود را از دست می‌دهند. درخت آقطی در بیشتر وضعیتها می‌روید امّا باردهی آن در وضعیتهای بیشتر آفتابی، بیشتر می‌باشد.

کاشت: گیاه آقطی ممکن بصورت اصلاح شده دارای یک تنه و شاخه و برگ باشد، ولی معمولاً بصورت یک بوتة گرد انبوه چهار هفته قبلا ز کاشت زمین آنرا آماده نمائید و گیاهان هرز پایا را تا 30 سانتی‌متر مربع از اطراف محل کاشت درخچه پاک نمائید و سپس یک مقدار 3 اُنس به ازای هر متر مربع کوه رابعنوان مثال کود با مارک تجاری گرومور را توسط چنگک خوب با خاک محل کاشت قاطی نمائید و سپس تا زیر پائین ترین‌ شاخه‌های درخت باشد. گیاهرا درچاله قرار دهید، درست به همان اندازه که درخچه در زمین نهالتان قرار داشت، و به آرامی در اطراف ریشه خاک بریزید و همزمان خاک آنرا سفت نمائید. جهت محافظت از درخچه چوبی را بعنوان قیّم در زمین فرو کرده و گیاه را با نوار و نمد مخصوص این کار ببنیدید. گیاهی که به صورت بوته می‌باشد احتیاجی به قیّم ندارد. درخت آقطی آمریکائی درختی خود لقاح نمی‌باشدو به همین علپت نمی‌تواند از گره‌های درخت خود مویه بوجود بیاورد و باری دگر لقاحی باید دو درخت دیگر حداقل به فاصلة3 متر از درخت اصلی کاشته شود.

(بقیة ترجمه صفحة 158)

هرس : بعد از کاشت ، شاخه های ضعیف و ناقص

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رایانه

رایانه، رایانگر، یا کامپیوتر (به انگلیسی: Computer) ماشینی است که برای پردازش اطلاعات استفاده می‌شود.

نام

در زبان انگلیسی «کامپیوتر» به کسی می‌گفتند که محاسبات ریاضی را (بدون ابزارهای کمکی مکانیکی) انجام می‌داد. بر اساس «واژه‌نامه ریشه‌یابی Barnhart Concise» واژه کامپیوتر در سال ۱۶۴۶ به زبان انگلیسی وارد گردید که به معنی «شخصی که محاسبه می‌کند» بوده است و سپس از سال ۱۸۹۷ به ماشین‌های محاسبه مکانیکی گفته می‌شد. در هنگام جنگ جهانی دوم «کامپیوتر» به زنان نظامی انگلیسی و آمریکایی که کارشان محاسبه مسیرهای شلیک توپ‌های بزرگ جنگی توسط ابزار مشابهی بود، اشاره می‌کرد.

در اوایل دهه ۵۰ میلادی هنوز اصطلاح ماشین‌ حساب (computing machines) برای معرفی این ماشین‌ها به‌کار می‌رفت. پس از آن عبارت کوتاه‌تر کامپیوتر (computer) به‌جای آن به‌کار گرفته شد. ورود این ماشین به ایران در اوائل دهه ۱۳۴۰ بود و در فارسی از آن زمان به آن «کامپیوتر» می‌گفتند. واژه رایانه در دو دهه اخیر در فارسی رایج شده و به‌تدریج جای «کامپیوتر» را گرفت.

برابر این واژه در زبان‌های دیگر حتما همان واژه زبان انگلیسی نیست. در زبان فرانسوی واژه "ordinateur"، که معادل "سازمان‌ده" یا "ماشین مرتب‌ساز" می‌باشد به‌کار می‌رود. در اسپانیایی "ordenador" با معنایی مشابه استفاده می‌شود، همچنین در دیگر کشورهای اسپانیایی زبان computadora بصورت انگلیسی‌مآبانه‌ای ادا می‌شود. در پرتغالی واژه computador به‌کار می‌رود که از واژه computar گرفته شده و به معنای "محاسبه کردن" می‌باشد. در ایتالیایی واژه "calcolatore" که معنای ماشین حساب بکار می‌رود که بیشتر روی ویژگی حسابگری منطقی آن تاکید دارد. در سوئدی رایانه "dator" خوانده می‌شود که از "data" (داده‌ها) برگرفته شده است. به فنلاندی "tietokone" خوانده می‌شود که به معنی "ماشین اطلاعات" می‌باشد. اما در زبان ایسلندی توصیف شاعرانه‌تری بکار می‌رود، "tölva" که واژه‌ایست مرکب و به معنای "زن پیشگوی شمارشگر" می‌باشد. در چینی رایانه "dian nao" یا "مغز برقی" خوانده می‌شود. در انگلیسی واژه‌ها و تعابیر گوناگونی استفاده می‌شود، به‌عنوان مثال دستگاه داده‌پرداز ("data processing machine").

تاریخچه

لایبنیتز (leibniz) ریاضی‌دان آلمانی از نخستین کسانی است که در ساختن یک دستگاه خودکار محاسبه کوشش کرد. او که به پدر حسابدارش در تنظیم حساب‌ها کمک می‌کرد، از زمانی که برای انجام محاسبات صرف می‌کرد ناراحت بود.

چارلز بابیج (Charles Babbage) یکی از اولین ماشین‌های محاسبه مکانیکی را که به آن ماشین تحلیلی گفته می‌شد، طراحی نمود، اما بخاطر مشکلات فنی فراوان مورد استفاده قرار نگرفت.

در گذشته دستگاه‌های مختلف مکانیکی ساده‌ای مثل خط‌کش محاسبه و چرتکه نیز کامپیوتر خوانده می‌شدند. در برخی موارد از آن‌ها به‌عنوان کامپیوتر‌های آنالوگ نام برده می‌شود. چراکه برخلاف کامپیوتر‌های رقمی، اعداد را نه به‌صورت اعداد در پایه دو بلکه به‌صورت کمیت‌های فیزیکی متناظر با آن اعداد نمایش می‌دهند. چیزی که امروزه از آن به‌عنوان "کامپیوتر" یاد می‌شود در گذشته به عنوان "کامپیوتر‌های رقمی (دیجیتال)" یاد می‌شد تا آن‌ها را از انواع "کامپیوتر‌های آنالوگ" جدا سازد(که هنوز در برخی موارد استفاده می‌شود مثلاً نشانک پرداز آنالوگ (analog signal processing).( بر گرفته از مقاله ای مندرج توسط دانشجو حامد حاج سعیدی )

تعریف داده و اطلاعات

داده به آن دسنه از ورودی هایی خام گفته می شود که برای پردازش به رایانه ارسال می شوند.

اطلاعات به داده های پردازش شده می گویند.

رایانه‌ها چگونه کار می‌کنند؟

از زمان رایانه‌های اولیه که در سال ۱۹۴۱ ساخته شده بودند تا کنون فناوری‌های دیجیتالی رشد نموده است، معماری فون نوِیمن یک رایانه را به چهار بخش اصلی توصیف می‌کند: واحد محاسبه و منطق (Arithmetic and Logic Unit یا ALU)، واحد کنترل یا حافظه، و ابزارهای ورودی و خروجی ( که جمعا I/O نامیده می‌شود). این بخش‌ها توسط اتصالات