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Preface

This account of human nutrtion describes the basic facts in an clear andsimple way without the use of complicated details or much specialistlanguage. In the few places where more than this is necessary, elementaryexplanation are given. I believe that any averagely intelligent person willreadily gain a good knowledge of human nutrition from this book, which willalso be of value to students, teachers, nurses, doctors and healthprefessionals.

I would like to thank professors Anthony Angel and peter W. Andrews of theDepartment of Biomedical Scienc, University of shefiled, for the verygenerous facilities they provided during the several years it has taken to writethis book.Greald wiscman All the nenrgy needed for growth and repair of thebook. for ,usular activity of all kinds and for all the work done by cells comesfrom the metabolism of carbohydrate, fat, proten and alcohol. The numeriusother items of the diet, even though essenital for other reasons, do notprovide energy, although many are directly involved in the chemical reactionwhich vield enery (If the diet is adequate and properly balanced the energynormally comes chilfly from carbohydrate and fat, while most of the proteinis used for cell growth and repair. When there is not enough carbohydrateand fat, the protein is used for energy and is then not availabe for otherpurpoes. As dietary protein is generally less abundat than carbohydrate andfat and usually more expensive, using protein for energy is comparativelywastclit. In some communitics, however, there may be plentiful protein and itmay then be eaten in sufficient quantity to be used for both cell building andfor energy.

The intake of food is governed in health by the appetic which under ordinaryconditions controls the weitht of the body with remarkable precision. Manypeople taking only moderate care are able to keep their weight more or lessunchanged over several decades. If they take food in excess by only a smallamount, theat exvess energy can be disposed of as heat and thereby preventfat accumulation. This seems to work very efficiently in some people. It is,however, casy to over - ride the natural controlling mechanism and consumesubstantially more enery than is required. When this happens the excessenergy is stored in the body as fat.

During ageing there is a fall in the weight of the bones, due to loss ofminerals, plus a fall in the weight of the muscles, hence if the total bodywight remains constant there must be compensatory changes, mainly anincrease in the body fat.

Yhe ability of the body to override the mechanism which controls energyintake has survical value when the supply of food is unpredictable because itcnables fat to be accumulated when there is plenty of food and its energy tobe used later when food is scarce. How long a healthy adult can survicewithout food depends to a large extent on the fat stored: with adequatewater, prople have lived for many weeks. When people die during starvationthey often still have some fat in their body. They die because duringstarvation body protein is metabolised as well as body fat and it is the loss ofthe protein that is usually the cause of death.

Nutritional status

The nutriritional status of most people can be assecsed sufficiently well bytheir appearance, body weight and by simple questions about general health.For a more critical assesment their body mass index can be determined. Thisgives a witht for height ratio and is a good guide to underweight oroverweight in adults exvept for those who are extremely muscular or haveecessive accumulation of water in the body.

If weighting is not possible, an assessment can be made by measuring thecircumdrence of the upper arm with a tape - measure. A point midwaybetween the shoulder and the elbow is used with the arm at rest , preferablyhanging down. This simple measurement reflects the size of th3 underlying,uscles and the subcautaneous fat, as well as the bone and the skin. Inundernouished persons and in those overweight it will be the muscles and thefat which will change in bulk rather than the other tissues. For adult men ona satisfactory diet the circumference ranges from about 250-320 mm and forwomen from about 220-300 mm.

In children chronic energy lack causes a low height for age ratio, especially ifthe parents and siblings are of average height or more.

Energy content of food

امام علی متن انگلیسی به همراه ترجمه 8 ص

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A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE LIVES OF THE FIRST IMAM

Amir al-mu’minin Ali -- upon whom be peace —was the son of Abu Talib, the shaykh of the Banu Hashim. Abu Talib was the uncle and guardian of the Holy Prophet and the person who had brought the Prophet to his house and raised him like his own son.

After the Prophet was chosen for his prophetic mission, Abu Talib continued to support him and repelled from him the evil that camefrome the infidels among the Arabs and especially the Quraysh. According to well-known traditional accounts Ali was born ten Years before the commencement of the prophetic mission of the Prophet. When six years old, as a result of famine in and around Mecca, he was requested by the Prophet to leave his father’s house and come to the house of his cousin, the Prophet. There he was placed directly under the guardianship and custody of the holy prophet.

A few years later, when the prophet was endowed with the Divine gift of prophecy and for the first time recevied the Divine revelation in the cave of Hira, as he left the cave to return to town and his own house he met Ali on the way. He told him what had happenend and Ali accepted the new faith. Again in a gathering when the Holy Prophet had brought his relatives together and invited them to accept his religion, he said the first person to accept his call would be his vicegerent and inheritor and deputy. The only person to rise from his place and accept the faith was Ali and the prophet accepted his declaration of faith. Therefore Ali Was the first man in Islam to accept the faith and is the first among the followers of the Prophet to have never worshiped other than the One God.

Ali was always in the company of the Prophet until the Prophet migrated from Mecca to Medina. On the night of the migration to Medina (hijrah) when the infidels had surrounded the house of the Prophet and were determined to invade the house at the end of the night and cut him to pieces while he was in bed. Ali slept in place of the Prophet while the Prophet left the house and set out for Medina.after the departure of the Prophet, according to his wish Ali gave back to the people the trusts and charges that they had left with the Prophet. Then he went to Medina with his Mother, the daughter of the Prophet, and two other women.

In Medina also Ali was constantly in the company of the Prophet in private and in Poblic. The Prophet gave Fatimah, his beloved daughter from Khadijah, to Ali as his wife and when the Prophet was creating bonds of brotherhood among his companions he selected Ali as his brother.

Ali was present in all the wars in which the Prophet participated, except the battle of Tabuk when he was ordered to stay in Medina in place of the Prophet. He did not retreat in any battle nor did he turn his face away from any enemy. He never disobeyed the Prophet, so that the Prophet said,” Ali is never separated from the Truth nor the Truth from Ali” .

On the day of the death of the Prophet,Ali was thirty-three years old. Although he was foremoset in religious virtues and the Most outstanding among the companions of the Prophet, he was pushed aside from the caliphate on the claim that he was too young and that he had many enemies among the people because of the blood of the polytheists he had spilled in the wars fought alongside the Prophet. Terefore Ali was almost completely cut off from public affairs. He retreated to his house where he began to train competent individuals in the Divine scieneces and in this way he passed the twenty-five years of the caliphate of the first three caliphs who succeeded the Prophet. When the third caliph was killed, people gave their allegiance to him and he was chosen as caliph.

During his caliphate of nearly four years and nine months, Ali followed the way of the Prophet and gave his caliphate the from of a spiritual movement and renewal and began many different types of reforms. Naturally, these reforms were against the interests of certain parties that sought their own benefit. As a result, a group of the companions (foremost among whom were Talhah and Zubayr, who also gained the support of A’ishah, and especially Mu’awiyah) made a pretext of the death of the third caliph to raise their heads in opposition and began to revolt and rebel against Ali.

In order to quell the civil strife and sedition, Ali fought a war near Basra, known as the “Battle of the camel,” against Talhah and Zubayr in which A’ishah, “the Mother of the Faithful,” was also involved he fought another war against Mu’awiyah on theborder of Iraq and Syria which lasted for a year and a half and is famous as the “Battle of Siffin”. He also fought against the Khawarij at Nahrawan, in a battle known as the “Battle of Nahrawan.” Therefore, most of the days of Ali’s caliphate were spent in overcoming internal opposition. Finally, in the morning of the 19th of Ramadan in the year 40 A.H, while praying in the mosque of Kufa, he was wounded by one of the Khawarij and died as a martyr during the night of the 21st.

According to the testimony of friend and foe alike, Ali had no shortcomings from the point of view of human perfection. And in the Islamic virtues he was a perfect example of the upbringing and training given by the Prophet. The discussions that have taken place concerning his personality and the books written on this subject by Shi’ites, Sunnis and members of other religions, as well as the simply curious outside any distinct religious bodies, are hardly equaled in the case of any other personality in history.

In science and knowledge Ali was the most learned of the companions of the Prophet, and of Muslims in general. In his learned discourses he was the first in Islam to open the door for logical demonstraction and proof and to discuss the “divine sciences” or metaphysics (ma’arifi ilahiyah). He spoke concerning the esoteric aspect of the Quran and devised Arabic grammar in order to preserve the Quran’s from of expression. He was the most eloquent Arab in speech (as has been mentioned in the first part of this book)

The courage of Ali was proverbial. In all the wars in which he participated during the lifetime of the Prophet, and also afterward, he never displayed fear or anxiety. Although in many battles such as those of Uhud,Hunayn,Khaybar and Khandaq the aides to the Prophet and the Muslim army trembled in fear or dispersed and fled, he never turned his back to the enemy. Never did a warrior or soldier engage Ali in battle and come out of it alive.Yet, with full chivalry he would never slay a week enemy nor pursue those who fled. He would not engage in surprise attacks or in turning streams of water upon the enemy. It has been definitively established historicall that in the Battle of Khaybar in the attack against the fort he reached the ring of the door and with sudden motion tore off the door and cast it away.

Also on the day when Mecca was conquered the Prophet ordered the idols to be broken. The idol “Hubal” was the largest idole in Mecca, a giant stone statue placed on the top of the Ka’bah. Following the command of the Prophet, Ali Placed his feet on the Prophet’s shoulders, climbed to the top of the Ka’bah, pulled “Hubal” from its place and cast it down.

Ali was also without equal in religious asceticism and the worship of God.

In answer to some who had complained of Ali’s anger toward them, the Prophet said, “Do not reproach Ali for he is in a state of Divine ecstasy and bewilderment.” Abu Darda one of the companions, one day saw the body of Ali in one of the palm plantations of Medina lying on the ground as stiff as wood. He went to Ali’s house to infrom his noble wife, the daughter of the Prophet, and to express his condolences. The daughter of the Prophet said, “My cousin (Ali) Has not died. Rather,in fear of God he has fainted. This condition overcomes him often.”

There are many stories told of Ali’s kindness to the lowly compassion for the needy and the poor, and generosity and munificence toward those in misery and poverty. Ali spent all that he earned to help the poor and the needy, and himself lived in the strictest and simplest manner. Ali loved agriculture and spent much of his time digging wells, planting trees and cultivating fields. But all the fields that he cultivated or wells that he built he gave in endowment (waqf) to the poor. His endowments, known as the “alms of Ali,” had the noteworthy in come of twenty-four thousand gold dinars toward the end of his life.

اجمالی از تاریخ زندگی امام علی (ع)

حضرت امیرالمومنین علی علیه السلام ، وی فرزند ابوطالب شیخ بنی هاشم عموی پیغمبر اکرم (ص) بود که پیغمبر اکرم را سرپرستی

مقاله درباره امام علی متن انگلیسی به همراه ترجمه

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A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE LIVES OF THE FIRST IMAM

Amir al-mu’minin Ali -- upon whom be peace —was the son of Abu Talib, the shaykh of the Banu Hashim. Abu Talib was the uncle and guardian of the Holy Prophet and the person who had brought the Prophet to his house and raised him like his own son.

After the Prophet was chosen for his prophetic mission, Abu Talib continued to support him and repelled from him the evil that camefrome the infidels among the Arabs and especially the Quraysh. According to well-known traditional accounts Ali was born ten Years before the commencement of the prophetic mission of the Prophet. When six years old, as a result of famine in and around Mecca, he was requested by the Prophet to leave his father’s house and come to the house of his cousin, the Prophet. There he was placed directly under the guardianship and custody of the holy prophet.

A few years later, when the prophet was endowed with the Divine gift of prophecy and for the first time recevied the Divine revelation in the cave of Hira, as he left the cave to return to town and his own house he met Ali on the way. He told him what had happenend and Ali accepted the new faith. Again in a gathering when the Holy Prophet had brought his relatives together and invited them to accept his religion, he said the first person to accept his call would be his vicegerent and inheritor and deputy. The only person to rise from his place and accept the faith was Ali and the prophet accepted his declaration of faith. Therefore Ali Was the first man in Islam to accept the faith and is the first among the followers of the Prophet to have never worshiped other than the One God.

Ali was always in the company of the Prophet until the Prophet migrated from Mecca to Medina. On the night of the migration to Medina (hijrah) when the infidels had surrounded the house of the Prophet and were determined to invade the house at the end of the night and cut him to pieces while he was in bed. Ali slept in place of the Prophet while the Prophet left the house and set out for Medina.after the departure of the Prophet, according to his wish Ali gave back to the people the trusts and charges that they had left with the Prophet. Then he went to Medina with his Mother, the daughter of the Prophet, and two other women.

In Medina also Ali was constantly in the company of the Prophet in private and in Poblic. The Prophet gave Fatimah, his beloved daughter from Khadijah, to Ali as his wife and when the Prophet was creating bonds of brotherhood among his companions he selected Ali as his brother.

Ali was present in all the wars in which the Prophet participated, except the battle of Tabuk when he was ordered to stay in Medina in place of the Prophet. He did not retreat in any battle nor did he turn his face away from any enemy. He never disobeyed the Prophet, so that the Prophet said,” Ali is never separated from the Truth nor the Truth from Ali” .

On the day of the death of the Prophet,Ali was thirty-three years old. Although he was foremoset in religious virtues and the Most outstanding among the companions of the Prophet, he was pushed aside from the caliphate on the claim that he was too young and that he had many enemies among the people because of the blood of the polytheists he had spilled in the wars fought alongside the Prophet. Terefore Ali was almost completely cut off from public affairs. He retreated to his house where he began to train competent individuals in the Divine scieneces and in this way he passed the twenty-five years of the caliphate of the first three caliphs who succeeded the Prophet. When the third caliph was killed, people gave their allegiance to him and he was chosen as caliph.

During his caliphate of nearly four years and nine months, Ali followed the way of the Prophet and gave his caliphate the from of a spiritual movement and renewal and began many different types of reforms. Naturally, these reforms were against the interests of certain parties that sought their own benefit. As a result, a group of the companions (foremost among whom were Talhah and Zubayr, who also gained the support of A’ishah, and especially Mu’awiyah) made a pretext of the death of the third caliph to raise their heads in opposition and began to revolt and rebel against Ali.

In order to quell the civil strife and sedition, Ali fought a war near Basra, known as the “Battle of the camel,” against Talhah and Zubayr in which A’ishah, “the Mother of the Faithful,” was also involved he fought another war against Mu’awiyah on theborder of Iraq and Syria which lasted for a year and a half and is famous as the “Battle of Siffin”. He also fought against the Khawarij at Nahrawan, in a battle known as the “Battle of Nahrawan.” Therefore, most of the days of Ali’s caliphate were spent in overcoming internal opposition. Finally, in the morning of the 19th of Ramadan in the year 40 A.H, while praying in the mosque of Kufa, he was wounded by one of the Khawarij and died as a martyr during the night of the 21st.

According to the testimony of friend and foe alike, Ali had no shortcomings from the point of view of human perfection. And in the Islamic virtues he was a perfect example of the upbringing and training given by the Prophet. The discussions that have taken place concerning his personality and the books written on this subject by Shi’ites, Sunnis and members of other religions, as well as the simply curious outside any distinct religious bodies, are hardly equaled in the case of any other personality in history.

In science and knowledge Ali was the most learned of the companions of the Prophet, and of Muslims in general. In his learned discourses he was the first in Islam to open the door for logical demonstraction and proof and to discuss the “divine sciences” or metaphysics (ma’arifi ilahiyah). He spoke concerning the esoteric aspect of the Quran and devised Arabic grammar in order to preserve the Quran’s from of expression. He was the most eloquent Arab in speech (as has been mentioned in the first part of this book)

The courage of Ali was proverbial. In all the wars in which he participated during the lifetime of the Prophet, and also afterward, he never displayed fear or anxiety. Although in many battles such as those of Uhud,Hunayn,Khaybar and Khandaq the aides to the Prophet and the Muslim army trembled in fear or dispersed and fled, he never turned his back to the enemy. Never did a warrior or soldier engage Ali in battle and come out of it alive.Yet, with full chivalry he would never slay a week enemy nor pursue those who fled. He would not engage in surprise attacks or in turning streams of water upon the enemy. It has been definitively established historicall that in the Battle of Khaybar in the attack against the fort he reached the ring of the door and with sudden motion tore off the door and cast it away.

Also on the day when Mecca was conquered the Prophet ordered the idols to be broken. The idol “Hubal” was the largest idole in Mecca, a giant stone statue placed on the top of the Ka’bah. Following the command of the Prophet, Ali Placed his feet on the Prophet’s shoulders, climbed to the top of the Ka’bah, pulled “Hubal” from its place and cast it down.

Ali was also without equal in religious asceticism and the worship of God.

In answer to some who had complained of Ali’s anger toward them, the Prophet said, “Do not reproach Ali for he is in a state of Divine ecstasy and bewilderment.” Abu Darda one of the companions, one day saw the body of Ali in one of the palm plantations of Medina lying on the ground as stiff as wood. He went to Ali’s house to infrom his noble wife, the daughter of the Prophet, and to express his condolences. The daughter of the Prophet said, “My cousin (Ali) Has not died. Rather,in fear of God he has fainted. This condition overcomes him often.”

There are many stories told of Ali’s kindness to the lowly compassion for the needy and the poor, and generosity and munificence toward those in misery and poverty. Ali spent all that he earned to help the poor and the needy, and himself lived in the strictest and simplest manner. Ali loved agriculture and spent much of his time digging wells, planting trees and cultivating fields. But all the fields that he cultivated or wells that he built he gave in endowment (waqf) to the poor. His endowments, known as the “alms of Ali,” had the noteworthy in come of twenty-four thousand gold dinars toward the end of his life.

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American Philosophy

Narrativity, Modernity, and Tragedy:How Pragmatism Educates Humanity

Sami PihlströmUniversity of [e-mail]

ABSTRACT: I argue that the modernist notion of a human self (or subject) cannot easily be post-modernistically rejected because the need to view an individual life as a unified ‘narrative’ with a beginning and an end (death) is a condition for asking humanly important questions about its meaningfulness (or meaninglessness). Such questions are central to philosophical anthropology. However, not only modern ways of making sense of life, such as linear narration in literature, but also premodern ones such as tragedy, ought to be taken seriously in reflecting on these questions. The tradition of pragmatism has tolerated this plurality of the frameworks in terms of which we can interpret or ‘structure’ the world and our lives as parts of it. It is argued that pragmatism is potentially able to accommodate both the plurality of such interpretive frameworks—premodern, modern, postmodern—and the need to evaluate those frameworks normatively. We cannot allow any premodern source of human meaningfulness whatsoever (say, astrology) to be taken seriously. Avoiding relativism is, then, a most important challenge for the pragmatist.

1. The idea that "grand metanarratives" are dead is usually regarded as the key to the cultural phenomenon known as postmodernism. We have been taught to think that the Enlightenment notions of reason, rationality, knowledge, truth, objectivity, and self have become too old-fashioned to be taken seriously any longer. There is no privileged "God's-Eye-View" available for telling big, important stories about these notions. The cultural hegemony of science and systematic philosophy, in particular, is over.

Nevertheless, as even some postmodern thinkers themselves keep on insisting, we still have to be committed to the grand narrative of our individual life.(1) We cannot really dispense with the modernist notion of self, and the one who says we can forgets who she or he is. From the point of view of our own life, no postmodern death of the subject can take place. On the contrary, my death transcends my life; it is not an experienceable event of my life—as Wittgenstein also famously pointed out at Tractatus 6.4311. Most (perhaps all) of us feel that one's own death is hardly even conceivable from within one's life.

On the other hand, somewhat paradoxically, death must be postulated as the imaginary end point, the final event, of the story of my life. If there were no death (i.e., the annihilation of my self) to be expected, I could not even realize that I am leading a specific, spatio-temporally restricted human life. The fact that death is awaiting for me, even if I cannot fully understand what it is all about, enables me to think about my life as a coherent whole with a beginning and an end. Only with respect to such a life can the question of "meaning" or "significance" arise.

It seems, then, that no postmodernist talk about the disappearance of the subject, connected with the distrust felt toward grand narratives, can force us to give up this meta-level fact about our life. We might perhaps even say, echoing Kant, that the inescapability of death is a necessary "transcendental condition" of a meaningful (or, for that matter, meaningless) life. Human life as we know it is intelligible only under the circumstances in which death inevitably puts an end to it. Without death, our lives would be something entirely different, something about which we can have no clear conception whatsoever—not from the point of view of our present human condition, at least.

Death, then, plays a decisive role in the modern human being's understanding of her or his life as a unified narrative. Let us explore the essentially modern notion of narrativity in some more detail. It is a central element of the modern outlook, of our typically modern conception of personal identity, to employ this notion in making sense of our lives. The modern person, often without noticing it, conceives of her or his life as a "story", and this narrativist attitude to life has been conceptualized in various ways in the history of modern thought (cf. Taylor 1989). To see one's life as a linear progression from a starting point, through various phases (corresponding to adventures in a novel), up to its final page, death, is to be a modern person. To go postmodern is to break this chain of narration, as in self-conscious fiction, in which the story itself somehow "knows", and shows that it knows, that it is only a fictional story. The postmodern person could, or such a person thinks that she or he could, understand that the subjective life she or he leads is not really the life of a single, unified subject. Then, apparently, such a "subject" would not be a person in any normal sense of the term.

I am not simply suggesting that we should not at all attempt to go postmodern in this sense. The "antihumanist" French (as well as American) thinkers have had many insightful things to say about the ways in which the modern subject is constituted in terms of the social and political structures (e.g., power relations) which make life-narratives possible in the first place—instead of being the fully autonomous center of its life we are (modernistically) inclined to think it is. Furthermore, interesting post-structuralist developments of these investigations have been pursued. Some are still emerging. Yet, from the point of view of an individual human being living in her or his natural and cultural environment, there can be no total disappearance of the subject any more than there can be a total disappearance of all acting characters in a literary narrative. Narratives are about actions—usually about human actions in some problematic circumstances. There simply is no way for us humans to remove this fact of humanity. To do so would require that we turn into beings quite different from what we in fact are. As long as our life is intelligible to us, we will presumably be unable to fail to see ourselves as characters in a narrative, acting in the midst of the problems our environment throws against our face. Even the postmodernist writers themselves, whose work I am unable to comment upon here in any detail, must view themselves as subjects engaging in the intentional action of writing postmodernist prose.

It is, in fact, somewhat ironical that postmodernist philosophers and sociologists of science—for example, Joseph Rouse (1996) in his recent book—strongly emphasize the need to take seriously the narrative aspect of science, thus employing an inherently modernist notion in apologizing for postmodernism. "Modernist" philosophers of science need not necessarily oppose the idea that science, like any other human practice, is partly constituted through the narratives told in and about it.(2) On the contrary, they may join the postmodernist thinkers in granting narrativity an important place in the formation of scientific world-views.

2. I would now like to suggest that, despite the thoroughgoing modernity (or postmodernity) of our age, we should not only take into account the modern and postmodern literary analogues of human life (i.e., linear narrative and broken, "self-conscious" narrative), but also be prepared to look at our lives, at least occasionally, in premodern terms, e.g., in terms of classical tragedy. Our serious mistakes in life will, we might come to think, be "revenged"—perhaps not by any supernatural forces, but by other human beings or by the non-human nature nevertheless. Or at least so we can interpret those mistakes. We might, for example, conceive of a disastrous car accident or plane crash as analogous to the nemesis the tragic hero confronts after having committed the tragic mistake. Many people would undoubtedly consider this an irrational idea. The people who die in such accidents—let alone those millions who die in wars and massacres— are usually innocent. They never did anything that ought to be revenged: they made no tragic mistakes; they just died, unnecessarily.

But this is not the point. The tragic figures—say, Oedipus or Hamlet—were, in some sense, innocent, too. Perhaps the most tragic thing that can happen to a human person is that even an innocent life may be "revenged". Even if, in some conventional sense, the character has been innocent or even virtuous, there may still be something fundamentally "wrong" in her or his life, or in the very fact that she or he lives at all. In our (post)modern economic societies, we may quite easily think about our lives as crimes against humanity. It is because we live in the way we do that the non-human nature and all the poor people in the third world suffer incredibly. We cannot help contributing to the increasing of that suffering, even though we live as responsibly as we can within our standard Western liberal democracies. We deserve a nemesis.(3)

I do not think that any authentic feeling apparently captured in (quasi-)religious exclamations like "I am guilty" or "I have sinned" can be easily reached in concrete human life. But the Christian experience of sin, or moral condemnation in front of God, is perhaps the closest analogue to the experience I try to describe (an experience that we, rich Western people as we are, ought to be capable of having), except that the world-view of tragedy recognizes no Christian salvation. Therefore, tragedy is conceptually closer to us non-believers.

What I try to say is that the points of view to the world provided by fundamental physics, molecular biology, and neurophysiology are not the only legitimate ones to be taken into account when we try to understand our humanity. We should open our eyes to what, say, tragedy (among many, perhaps conflicting perspectives) can tell us about our lives. In the pluralistic spirit of pragmatism, we should tolerate various different points of view— language-games employing different standards of acceptability, pursuing different goals, and satisfying different human needs— for interpretively structuring the world, including our own place in its scheme of things (see Pihlström 1996a). Modern science is, of course, one of these human perspectives to reality, but the premodern tragic picture of man's fragile position in the world cannot be excluded just because there is no "scientific evidence" for its correctness. It is a correct picture in an entirely different sense, based on entirely different practical purposes. Pragmatists, early and late, have respected this plurality of our ways of experiencing and making sense of both human and non-human reality. They have had no use for the fiction of a "God's-Eye-View" to the world (here the traditions of pragmatism and postmodernism of course resemble each other), but, unlike postmodernists, they have not attempted to destroy the notion of a human subject. Instead, they have respected our need to ask questions about the significance of our individual lives. Therefore, pragmatism might also be able to accommodate our need— a very human need indeed— to be able to conceive of our lives as tragic (or, to point out a possible link between the premodern and modern standpoints, as tragic narratives).

Relevant examples could be multiplied. Another crucially important premodern source of insight for those who wish to make sense of their human limitedness might be the Book of Job (which is not a tragedy, of course). Reading the story about Job may make us appreciate our smallness and insignificance as parts of a vast amoral universe (cf. Wilcox 1989)— irrespective of whether we are theists, atheists, or agnostics, I would add.

The problem here, as so often in philosophy, is how to avoid uncritical relativism. Why can (or should) we "structure" our lives on the basis of tragedy, recognizing our hubris and the resulting nemesis, or on the basis of the Book of Job, recognizing our ignorance and weakness against the great mysteries of the creation, but not— at least not rationally and responsibly— on the basis of astrology (another premodern practice or viewpoint), postulating interstellar causal forces which determine the events of our lives? Both tragedy, the Bible, and astrology are, to use Nelson Goodman's term, "entrenched" in human culture. There has to be a normative point of view from which we can say that two of them should be taken seriously (though critically) in reflecting on human life whereas the third one should not. There has to be a way of saying that the human purposes which tragedy and the Scriptures (non-foundationalistically interpreted) serve are more serious and better purposes than the ones served by astrology (or other irrational pseudo-sciences).(4) It is hardly surprising that one of the constantly reoccuring charges that pragmatists have had to meet with is the accusation that pragmatism amounts to relativism.

The ultimate form of philosophical relativism is the first-person subjectivist view, according to which I am myself the only possible standard for the rationality (or moral acceptability, or any other normative virtue) of my beliefs, actions, etc. This is no doubt a possible position. It is related to still another example— admittedly, a modern rather than premodern one— which might throw light on the philosophical relevance of certain non-scientific, prima facie non-rational frameworks: the search for authentic existence, or authenticity for short, as constitutive of our individual lives. This search, inseparably connected with the inevitability of death and the above-mentioned experience of guilt, has been extensively discussed in the existentialist tradition, i.e., in the work of such literary and philosophical figures as Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre, and Camus (see Golomb 1995).

If it is true that we ourselves "create our authenticity" and that "[t]here is no one but ourselves to condemn or appreciate our behaviour" in the course of that creation (ibid., p. 25), there is a danger of solipsism that we must not fail to observe. If I am the measure of how my life— its authenticity, moral quality, or anything else about it— should be evaluated, then I am, in a profound sense, alone in the world. The world is my world.(5) Again, it is quite possible to hold this view. One cannot really argue against solipsism on theoretical grounds. Instead, the "argument" can only be based on an ethical decision to lead a certain kind of (authentic) life, to expose one's individual opinions to public normative criteria.

3. There is, then, no easy argumentative "solution" to the problem of relativism, subjectivism, and solipsism. This problem must be constantly faced when dealing with

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خطبه 1

در این خطبه ، سخن از آغاز آفرینش آسمان و زمین و آفرینش آدم ( ع ) است .

حمد باد خداوندى را که سخنوران در ثنایش فرو مانند و شمارندگان از شمارش نعمتهایش عاجز آیند و کوشندگان هر چه کوشند ، حق نعمتش را آنسان که شایسته اوست ، ادا کردن نتوانند . خداوندى ، که اندیشه‏هاى دور پرواز او را درک نکنند و زیرکان تیزهوش ، به عمق جلال و جبروت او نرسند . خداوندى که فراخناى صفاتش را نه حدّى است و نه نهایتى و وصف جلال و جمال او را سخنى درخور نتوان یافت ، که در زمان نگنجد و مدت نپذیرد . آفریدگان را به قدرت خویش بیافرید و بادهاى باران زاى را بپراکند تا بشارت باران رحمت او دهند و به صخره‏هاى کوهساران ، زمینش را از لرزش بازداشت .

اساس دین ، شناخت خداوند است و کمال شناخت او ، تصدیق به وجود اوست و کمال تصدیق به وجود او ، یکتا و یگانه دانستن اوست و کمال اعتقاد به یکتایى و یگانگى او ، پرستش اوست . دور از هر شایبه و آمیزه‏اى و ، پرستش او زمانى از هر شایبه و آمیزه‏اى پاک باشد که از ذات او ، نفى هر صفت شود زیرا هر صفتى گواه بر این است که غیر از موصوف خود است و هر موصوفى ، گواه بر این است که غیر از صفت خود است .

[ 31 ]

هرکس خداوند سبحان را به صفتى زاید بر ذات وصف کند ، او را به چیزى مقرون ساخته و هر که او را به چیزى مقرون دارد ، دو چیزش پنداشته و هر که دو چیزش پندارد ، چنان است که به اجزایش تقسیم کرده و هر که به اجزایش تقسیم کند ،

او را ندانسته و نشناخته است . و آنکه به سوى او اشارت کند محدودش پنداشته و هر که محدودش پندارد ، او را بر شمرده است و هر که گوید که خدا در چیست ، خدا را درون چیزى قرار داده و هر که گوید که خدا بر روى چیزى جاى دارد ، دیگر جایها را از وجود او تهى کرده است .

خداوند همواره بوده است و از عیب حدوث ، منزه است . موجود است ، نه آنسان که از عدم به وجود آمده باشد ، با هر چیزى هست ، ولى نه به گونه‏اى که همنشین و نزدیک او باشد ، غیر از هر چیزى است ، ولى نه بدان سان که از او دور باشد . کننده کارهاست ولى نه با حرکات و ابزارها . به آفریدگان خود بینا بود ، حتى آن زمان ، که هنوز جامه هستى بر تن نداشتند . تنها و یکتاست زیرا هرگز او را یار و همدمى نبوده که فقدانش موجب تشویش گردد . موجودات را چنانکه باید بیافرید و آفرینش را چنانکه باید آغاز نهاد . بى‏آنکه نیازش به اندیشه‏اى باشد یا به تجربه‏اى که از آن سود برده باشد یا به حرکتى که در او پدید آمده باشد و نه دل مشغولى که موجب تشویش شود . آفرینش هر چیزى را در زمان معینش به انجام رسانید و میان طبایع گوناگون ،

سازش پدید آورد و هر چیزى را غریزه و سرشتى خاص عطا کرد . و هر غریزه و سرشتى را خاص کسى قرار داد ، پیش از آنکه بر او جامه آفرینش پوشد ، به آن آگاه بود و بر آغاز و انجام آن احاطه داشت و نفس هر سرشت و پیچ و خم هر کارى را مى‏دانست .

آنگاه ، خداوند سبحان فضاهاى شکافته را پدید آورد و به هر سوى راهى گشود و هواى فرازین را بیافرید و در آن آبى متلاطم و متراکم با موجهاى دمان جارى ساخت و آن را بر پشت بادى سخت‏وزنده توفان‏زاى نهاد . و فرمان داد ، که بار خویش بر پشت استوار دارد و نگذارد که فرو ریزد ، و در همان جاى که مقرر داشته بماند . هوا در زیر آن باد گشوده شد و آب بر فراز آن جریان یافت . [ و تا آن آب در تموج آید ] ، باد دیگرى بیافرید و این باد ، سترون بود که تنها کارش ، جنبانیدن آب بود . آن باد همواره در وزیدن بود وزیدنى تند ، از جایگاهى دور و ناشناخته . و فرمانش داد که بر آن آب موّاج ،

[ 33 ]

وزیدن گیرد و امواج آن دریا برانگیزد و آنسان که مشک را مى‏جنبانند ، آب را به جنبش واداشت . باد به گونه‏اى بر آن مى‏وزید ، که در جایى تهى از هر مانع بوزد . باد آب را پیوسته زیر و رو کرد و همه اجزاى آن در حرکت آورد تا کف بر سر برآورد ،

آنسان که از شیر ، کره حاصل شود . آنگاه خداى تعالى آن کفها به فضاى گشاده ، فرا برد و از آن هفت آسمان را بیافرید . در زیر آسمانها موجى پدید آورد تا آنها را از فرو ریختن باز دارد . و بر فراز آنها سقفى بلند برآورد بى‏هیچ ستونى که بر پایشان نگه دارد یا میخى که اجزایشان به هم پیوسته گرداند . سپس به ستارگان بیاراست و اختران تابناک پدید آورد و چراغهاى تابناک مهر و ماه را بر افروخت ، هر یک در فلکى دور زننده و سپهرى گردنده چونان لوحى متحرک .

سپس ، میان آسمانهاى بلند را بگشاد و آنها را از گونه‏گون فرشتگان پر نمود .

برخى از آن فرشتگان ، پیوسته در سجودند ، بى‏آنکه رکوعى کرده باشند ، برخى همواره در رکوعند و هرگز قد نمى‏افرازند . صف در صف ، در جاى خود قرار گرفته‏اند و هیچ یک را یاراى آن نیست که از جاى خود به دیگر جاى رود . خدا را مى‏ستایند و از ستودن ملول نمى‏گردند . هرگز چشمانشان به خواب نرود و خردهاشان دستخوش سهو و خطا نشود و اندامهایشان سستى نگیرد و غفلت فراموشى بر آنان چیره نگردد .

گروهى از فرشتگان امینان وحى خداوندى هستند و سخن او را به رسولانش مى‏رسانند و آنچه مقدر کرده و مقرر داشته ، به زمین مى‏آورند و باز مى‏گردند . گروهى نگهبانان بندگان او هستند و گروهى دربانان بهشت اویند . شمارى از ایشان پایهایشان بر روى زمین فرودین است و گردنهایشان به آسمان فرازین کشیده شده و اعضاى پیکرشان از اقطار زمین بیرون رفته و دوشهایشان آنچنان نیرومند است که توان آن دارند که پایه‏هاى عرش را بر دوش کشند . از هیبت عظمت خداوندى یاراى آن ندارند که چشم فرا کنند ، بلکه ، همواره ، سر فروهشته دارند و بالها گرد کرده و خود را در آنها پیچیده‏اند . میان ایشان و دیگران ، حجابهاى عزّت و عظمت فرو افتاده و پرده‏هاى قدرت کشیده شده است . هرگز پروردگارشان را در عالم خیال و توهم تصویر نمى‏کنند و به صفات مخلوقات متصفش نمى‏سازند و در مکانها محدودش نمى‏دانند و براى او همتایى نمى‏شناسند و به او اشارت نمى‏نمایند .

[ 35 ]

هم از این خطبه [ در صفت آفرینش آدم ( علیه السلام ) ] آنگاه خداى سبحان ، از زمین درشتناک و از زمین هموار و نرم و از آنجا که زمین شیرین بود و از آنجا که شوره‏زار بود ، خاکى بر گرفت و به آب بشست تا یکدست و خالص گردید . پس نمناکش ساخت تا چسبنده شد و از آن پیکرى ساخت داراى اندامها و اعضا و مفاصل . و خشکش نمود تا خود را بگرفت چونان سفالینه . و تا مدتى معین و زمانى مشخص سختش گردانید . آنگاه از روح خود در آن بدمید . آن پیکر گلین که جان یافته بود ، از جاى برخاست که انسانى شده بود با ذهنى که در کارها به جولانش درآورد و با اندیشه‏اى که به آن در کارها تصرف کند و عضوهایى که چون ابزارهایى به کارشان گیرد و نیروى شناختى که میان حق و باطل فرق نهد و طعمها و بویها و رنگها و چیزها را دریابد . معجونى سرشته از رنگهاى گونه‏گون .

برخى همانند یکدیگر و برخى مخالف و ضد یکدیگر . چون گرمى و سردى ، ترى و خشکى [ و اندوه و شادمانى ] . خداى سبحان از فرشتگان امانتى را که به آنها سپرده بود ، طلب داشت و عهد و وصیتى را که با آنها نهاده بود ، خواستار شد که به سجود در برابر او اعتراف کنند و تا اکرامش کنند در برابرش خاشع گردند .

پس ، خداى سبحان گفت که در برابر آدم سجده کنید . همه سجده کردند مگر ابلیس که از سجده کردن سر بر تافت . گرفتار تکبر و غرور شده بود و شقاوت بر او چیره شده بود . بر خود ببالید که خود از آتش آفریده شده بود و آدم را که از مشتى گل سفالین آفریده شده بود ، خوار و حقیر شمرد . خداوند ابلیس را مهلت ارزانى داشت تا به خشم خود کیفرش دهد و تا آزمایش و بلاى او به غایت رساند و آن وعده که به او داده بود ، به سر برد . پس او را گفت که تو تا روز رستاخیز از مهلت داده شدگانى .

آنگاه خداوند سبحان آدم را در بهشت جاى داد ، سرایى که زندگى در آن خوش و آرام بود و جایگاهى همه ایمنى . و از ابلیس و دشمنى‏اش برحذر داشت . ولى دشمن که آدم را در آن سراى خوش و امن ، همنشین نیکان دید ، بر او رشک برد . آدم یقین خویش بداد و شک بستد و اراده استوارش به سستى گرایید و شادمانى از دل او رخت بر بست و وحشت جاى آن بگرفت و آن گردن فرازى و غرور به پشیمانى و حسرت بدل شد . ولى خداوند در توبه به روى او بگشاد و کلمه رحمت خویش به

[ 37 ]

او بیاموخت و وعده داد که بار دگر او را به بهشت خود بازگرداند . لیکن نخست او را به این جهان بلا و محنت و جایگاه زادن و پروردن فرو فرستاد .

خداوند سبحان از میان فرزندان آدم ، پیامبرانى برگزید و از آنان پیمان گرفت که هر چه را که به آنها وحى مى‏شود ، به مردم برسانند و در امر رسالت او امانت نگه دارند ، به هنگامى که بیشتر مردم ، پیمانى را که با خدا بسته بودند ، شکسته بودند و حق پرستش او ادا نکرده بودند و براى او در عبادت شریکانى قرار داده بودند و شیطانها از شناخت خداوند ، منحرفشان کرده بودند و پیوندشان را از پرستش خداوندى بریده بودند . پس پیامبران را به میانشان بفرستاد . پیامبران از پى یکدیگر بیامدند تا از مردم بخواهند که آن عهد را که خلقتشان بر آن سرشته شده ، به جاى آرند و نعمت او را که از یاد برده‏اند ، فرا یاد آورند و از آنان حجّت گیرند که رسالت حق به آنان رسیده است و خردهاشان را که در پرده غفلت ، مستور گشته ، برانگیزند . و نشانه‏هاى قدرتش را که بر سقف بلند آسمان آشکار است به آنها بنمایانند و هم آنچه را که بر روى زمین است و آنچه را که سبب حیاتشان یا موجب مرگشان مى‏شود به آنان بشناسانند و از سختیها و مرارتهایى که پیرشان مى‏کند یا حوادثى که بر سرشان مى‏تازد ، آگاهشان سازند . خداوند بندگان خود را از رسالت پیامبران ، بى‏نصیب نساخت بلکه همواره بر آنان ، کتاب فرو فرستاد و برهان و دلیل راستى و درستى آیین خویش را بر ایشان آشکار ساخت و راه راست و روشن را خود در پیش پایشان بگشود . پیامبران را اندک بودن یاران ، در کار سست نکرد و فراوانى تکذیب کنندگان و دروغ انگاران ، از عزم جزم خود باز نداشت . براى برخى که پیشین بودند ، نام پیامبرانى را که زان سپس خواهند آمد ، گفته بود و برخى را که پسین بودند ، به پیامبران پیشین شناسانده بود .

قرنها بدین منوال گذشت و روزگاران سپرى شد . پدران به دیار نیستى رفتند و فرزندان جاى ایشان بگرفتند و خداوند سبحان ، محمد رسول اللّه ( صلى اللّه علیه و آله ) را فرستاد تا وعده خود برآورد و دور نبوّت به پایان برد . در حالى که از پیامبران برایش پیمان گرفته شده بود . نشانه‏هاى پیامبرى‏اش آشکار شد و روز ولادتش با کرامتى عظیم همراه بود . در این هنگام مردم روى زمین به کیش و آیین پراکنده بودند

[ 39 ]

و هر کس را باور و عقیدت و آیین و رسمى دیگر بود : پاره‏اى خدا را به آفریدگانش تشبیه مى‏کردند . پاره‏اى او را به نامهایى منحرف مى‏خواندند و جماعتى مى‏گفتند که این جهان هستى ، آفریده دیگرى است . خداوند به رسالت محمد ( صلى اللّه علیه و آله ) آنان را از گمراهى برهانید و ننگ جهالت از آنان بزدود .

خداوند سبحان ، مرتبت قرب و لقاى خود را به محمد ( صلى اللّه علیه و آله ) عطا کرد و براى او آن را پسندید که در نزد خود داشت . پس عزیزش داشت و از این جهان فرودین که قرین بلا و محنت است ، روى گردانش نمود و کریمانه جانش بگرفت . درود خدا بر او و خاندانش باد .

محمد ( صلى اللّه علیه و آله ) نیز در میان امّت خود چیزهایى به ودیعت نهاد که دیگر پیامبران در میان امّت خود به ودیعت نهاده بودند زیرا هیچ پیامبرى امّت خویش را بعد از خود سرگردان رها نکرده است ، بى‏آنکه راهى روشن پیش پایشان گشوده باشد یا نشانه‏اى صریح و آشکار براى هدایتشان قرار داده باشد . محمد ( صلى اللّه علیه و آله ) نیز کتابى را که از سوى پروردگارتان بر او نازل شده بود ، در میان شما نهاد ، کتابى که احکام حلال و حرامش در آن بیان شده بود و واجب و مستحب و ناسخ و منسوخش روشن شده بود . معلوم داشته که چه کارهایى مباح است و چه کارهایى واجب یا حرام . خاص و عام چیست و در آن اندرزها و مثالهاست . مطلق و مقید و محکم و متشابه آن را آشکار ساخته . هر مجملى را تفسیر کرده و گره هر مشکلى را گشوده است . و نیز چیزهایى است که براى دانستنش پیمان گرفته شده و چیزهایى است که به نادانستنش رخصت داده شده . احکامى است که در کتاب خدا به وجوب آن حکم شده و در سنت ، آن حکم نسخ گشته و احکامى است که در سنت ، به وجوب آن تاکید شده ولى در کتاب به ترکش رخصت داده شده و نیز اعمالى است که چون زمانش فرازآید ، واجب و چون زمانش سپرى گردد ، وجوبش زایل شود . و در باب امورى که ارتکاب آن گناه کبیره است و خدا به کیفر آن ، وعید آتش دوزخ داده و امورى که ارتکاب آن گناه صغیره است و مستوجب غفران و آمرزش اوست و امورى که اندک آن هم پذیرفته آید و هر کس مخیر است که بیش از آن هم به جاى آورد .

[ 41 ]

و از این خطبه [ در ذکر حج ] خداوند ، حج خانه خود را بر شما واجب گردانید و خانه خود را قبله‏گاه مردم ساخت . مردم با شوق تمام ، آنسان که ستوران به آبشخور روى نهند و کبوتران به آشیانه پناه برند ، بدان درآیند . خداى سبحان حج را مقرر فرمود تا مردم در برابر عظمت او فروتنى نشان دهند و به عزت و جبروت او اعتراف کنند . و از میان بندگان خود کسانى را برگزید تا صلاى دعوت او شنیدند و اجابت کردند و سخن حق تصدیق نمودند و در آنجا پاى نهادند که پیامبرانش نهاده بودند و به آن فرشتگان همانند شدند که گرد عرشش طواف مى‏کنند و در این سودا که سرمایه‏شان عبادت اوست ، سود فراوان حاصل کردند و تا به میعاد آمرزش او دست یابند بر یکدیگر پیشى جستند . خداوند ، سبحانه و تعالى ، حج را نشانه و علامت اسلام قرار داد و کعبه را پناهگاه پناهندگان و حج را فریضتى واجب ساخت و حقش را واجب گردانید و حج را بر شما مقرر فرمود و گفت : « براى خدا حج آن خانه بر کسانى که قدرت رفتن به آن داشته باشند ، واجب است و هر که راه کفر پیش گیرد بداند که خدا از جهانیان بى‏نیاز است » ( 1 ) .

1 ] و من خطبة له ع یذکر فیها ابتداء خلق السماء و الأرض و خلق آدم و فیها ذکر الحج و تحتوی على حمد الله و خلق العالم و خلق الملائکة و اختیار الأنبیاء و مبعث النبی و القرآن و الأحکام الشرعیة

اَلْحَمْدُ لِلَّهِ اَلَّذِی لاَ یَبْلُغُ مِدْحَتَهُ اَلْقَائِلُونَ وَ لاَ یُحْصِی نَعْمَاءَهُ اَلْعَادُّونَ وَ لاَ یُؤَدِّی حَقَّهُ اَلْمُجْتَهِدُونَ اَلَّذِی لاَ یُدْرِکُهُ بُعْدُ اَلْهِمَمِ وَ لاَ یَنَالُهُ غَوْصُ اَلْفِطَنِ اَلَّذِی لَیْسَ لِصِفَتِهِ حَدٌّ مَحْدُودٌ وَ لاَ نَعْتٌ مَوْجُودٌ وَ لاَ وَقْتٌ مَعْدُودٌ وَ لاَ أَجَلٌ مَمْدُودٌ فَطَرَ اَلْخَلاَئِقَ بِقُدْرَتِهِ وَ نَشَرَ اَلرِّیَاحَ بِرَحْمَتِهِ وَ وَتَّدَ بِالصُّخُورِ مَیَدَانَ أَرْضِهِ أَوَّلُ اَلدِّینِ مَعْرِفَتُهُ وَ کَمَالُ مَعْرِفَتِهِ اَلتَّصْدِیقُ بِهِ وَ کَمَالُ اَلتَّصْدِیقِ بِهِ تَوْحِیدُهُ وَ کَمَالُ تَوْحِیدِهِ اَلْإِخْلاَصُ لَهُ وَ کَمَالُ اَلْإِخْلاَصِ لَهُ نَفْیُ اَلصِّفَاتِ عَنْهُ لِشَهَادَةِ کُلِّ صِفَةٍ أَنَّهَا غَیْرُ اَلْمَوْصُوفِ وَ شَهَادَةِ کُلِّ مَوْصُوفٍ أَنَّهُ غَیْرُ اَلصِّفَةِ فَمَنْ وَصَفَ اَللَّهَ سُبْحَانَهُ فَقَدْ قَرَنَهُ وَ مَنْ قَرَنَهُ فَقَدْ ثَنَّاهُ وَ مَنْ ثَنَّاهُ فَقَدْ جَزَّأَهُ وَ مَنْ جَزَّأَهُ فَقَدْ جَهِلَهُ وَ مَنْ جَهِلَهُ فَقَدْ أَشَارَ إِلَیْهِ وَ مَنْ أَشَارَ إِلَیْهِ فَقَدْ حَدَّهُ وَ مَنْ حَدَّهُ فَقَدْ عَدَّهُ وَ مَنْ قَالَ فِیمَ فَقَدْ ضَمَّنَهُ وَ مَنْ قَالَ عَلاَ مَ فَقَدْ أَخْلَى مِنْهُ کَائِنٌ لاَ عَنْ حَدَثٍ مَوْجُودٌ لاَ عَنْ عَدَمٍ مَعَ کُلِّ شَیْ‏ءٍ لاَ بِمُقَارَنَةٍ وَ غَیْرُ کُلِّ شَیْ‏ءٍ لاَ بِمُزَایَلَةٍ فَاعِلٌ لاَ بِمَعْنَى اَلْحَرَکَاتِ وَ اَلْآلَةِ بَصِیرٌ إِذْ لاَ مَنْظُورَ إِلَیْهِ مِنْ خَلْقِهِ مُتَوَحِّدٌ إِذْ لاَ سَکَنَ یَسْتَأْنِسُ بِهِ وَ لاَ یَسْتَوْحِشُ لِفَقْدِهِ خلق العالم أَنْشَأَ اَلْخَلْقَ إِنْشَاءً وَ اِبْتَدَأَهُ اِبْتِدَاءً بِلاَ رَوِیَّةٍ أَجَالَهَا وَ لاَ تَجْرِبَةٍ اِسْتَفَادَهَا وَ لاَ حَرَکَةٍ أَحْدَثَهَا وَ لاَ هَمَامَةِ نَفْسٍ اِضْطَرَبَ فِیهَا أَحَالَ اَلْأَشْیَاءَ لِأَوْقَاتِهَا وَ لَأَمَ بَیْنَ مُخْتَلِفَاتِهَا وَ غَرَّزَ غَرَائِزَهَا وَ أَلْزَمَهَا أَشْبَاحَهَا عَالِماً بِهَا قَبْلَ اِبْتِدَائِهَا مُحِیطاً بِحُدُودِهَا وَ اِنْتِهَائِهَا عَارِفاً بِقَرَائِنِهَا وَ أَحْنَائِهَا ثُمَّ أَنْشَأَ سُبْحَانَهُ فَتْقَ اَلْأَجْوَاءِ وَ شَقَّ اَلْأَرْجَاءِ وَ سَکَائِکَ اَلْهَوَاءِ فَأَجْرَى فِیهَا مَاءً مُتَلاَطِماً تَیَّارُهُ مُتَرَاکِماً زَخَّارُهُ حَمَلَهُ عَلَى مَتْنِ اَلرِّیحِ اَلْعَاصِفَةِ وَ اَلزَّعْزَعِ اَلْقَاصِفَةِ فَأَمَرَهَا بِرَدِّهِ وَ سَلَّطَهَا عَلَى شَدِّهِ وَ قَرَنَهَا إِلَى حَدِّهِ اَلْهَوَاءُ مِنْ تَحْتِهَا فَتِیقٌ وَ اَلْمَاءُ مِنْ فَوْقِهَا دَفِیقٌ ثُمَّ أَنْشَأَ سُبْحَانَهُ رِیحاً اِعْتَقَمَ مَهَبَّهَا وَ أَدَامَ مُرَبَّهَا وَ أَعْصَفَ مَجْرَاهَا وَ أَبْعَدَ مَنْشَأَهَا فَأَمَرَهَا بِتَصْفِیقِ اَلْمَاءِ اَلزَّخَّارِ وَ إِثَارَةِ مَوْجِ اَلْبِحَارِ فَمَخَضَتْهُ مَخْضَ اَلسِّقَاءِ وَ عَصَفَتْ بِهِ عَصْفَهَا بِالْفَضَاءِ تَرُدُّ أَوَّلَهُ إِلَى آخِرِهِ وَ سَاجِیَهُ إِلَى مَائِرِهِ حَتَّى عَبَّ عُبَابُهُ وَ رَمَى بِالزَّبَدِ رُکَامُهُ فَرَفَعَهُ فِی هَوَاءٍ مُنْفَتِقٍ وَ جَوٍّ مُنْفَهِقٍ فَسَوَّى مِنْهُ سَبْعَ سَمَوَاتٍ جَعَلَ سُفْلاَهُنَّ مَوْجاً مَکْفُوفاً وَ عُلْیَاهُنَّ سَقْفاً مَحْفُوظاً وَ سَمْکاً مَرْفُوعاً بِغَیْرِ عَمَدٍ یَدْعَمُهَا وَ لاَ دِسَارٍ یَنْظِمُهَا ثُمَّ زَیَّنَهَا بِزِینَةِ اَلْکَوَاکِبِ وَ ضِیَاءِ اَلثَّوَاقِبِ وَ أَجْرَى فِیهَا سِرَاجاً مُسْتَطِیراً وَ قَمَراً مُنِیراً فِی فَلَکٍ دَائِرٍ وَ سَقْفٍ سَائِرٍ وَ رَقِیمٍ مَائِرٍ خلق الملائکة ثُمَّ فَتَقَ مَا بَیْنَ اَلسَّمَوَاتِ اَلْعُلاَ فَمَلَأَهُنَّ أَطْوَاراً مِنْ مَلاَئِکَتِهِ مِنْهُمْ سُجُودٌ لاَ یَرْکَعُونَ وَ رُکُوعٌ لاَ یَنْتَصِبُونَ وَ صَافُّونَ لاَ یَتَزَایَلُونَ وَ مُسَبِّحُونَ لاَ یَسْأَمُونَ لاَ یَغْشَاهُمْ نَوْمُ اَلْعُیُونِ وَ لاَ سَهْوُ اَلْعُقُولِ وَ لاَ فَتْرَةُ اَلْأَبْدَانِ وَ لاَ غَفْلَةُ اَلنِّسْیَانِ وَ مِنْهُمْ أُمَنَاءُ عَلَى وَحْیِهِ وَ أَلْسِنَةٌ إِلَى رُسُلِهِ وَ مُخْتَلِفُونَ بِقَضَائِهِ وَ أَمْرِهِ وَ مِنْهُمُ اَلْحَفَظَةُ لِعِبَادِهِ وَ اَلسَّدَنَةُ لِأَبْوَابِ جِنَانِهِ وَ مِنْهُمُ اَلثَّابِتَةُ فِی اَلْأَرَضِینَ اَلسُّفْلَى أَقْدَامُهُمْ وَ اَلْمَارِقَةُ مِنَ اَلسَّمَاءِ اَلْعُلْیَا أَعْنَاقُهُمْ وَ اَلْخَارِجَةُ مِنَ اَلْأَقْطَارِ أَرْکَانُهُمْ وَ اَلْمُنَاسِبَةُ لِقَوَائِمِ اَلْعَرْشِ أَکْتَافُهُمْ نَاکِسَةٌ دُونَهُ أَبْصَارُهُمْ مُتَلَفِّعُونَ تَحْتَهُ بِأَجْنِحَتِهِمْ مَضْرُوبَةٌ بَیْنَهُمْ وَ بَیْنَ مَنْ دُونَهُمْ حُجُبُ اَلْعِزَّةِ وَ أَسْتَارُ اَلْقُدْرَةِ لاَ یَتَوَهَّمُونَ رَبَّهُمْ بِالتَّصْوِیرِ وَ لاَ یُجْرُونَ عَلَیْهِ صِفَاتِ اَلْمَصْنُوعِینَ وَ لاَ یَحُدُّونَهُ بِالْأَمَاکِنِ وَ لاَ یُشِیرُونَ إِلَیْهِ بِالنَّظَائِرِ صفة خلق آدم علیه السلام ثُمَّ جَمَعَ سُبْحَانَهُ مِنْ حَزْنِ اَلْأَرْضِ وَ سَهْلِهَا وَ عَذْبِهَا وَ سَبَخِهَا تُرْبَةً سَنَّهَا بِالْمَاءِ حَتَّى خَلَصَتْ وَ لاَطَهَا بِالْبَلَّةِ حَتَّى لَزَبَتْ فَجَبَلَ مِنْهَا صُورَةً ذَاتَ أَحْنَاءٍ وَ وُصُولٍ وَ أَعْضَاءٍ وَ فُصُولٍ أَجْمَدَهَا حَتَّى اِسْتَمْسَکَتْ وَ أَصْلَدَهَا حَتَّى صَلْصَلَتْ لِوَقْتٍ مَعْدُودٍ وَ أَمَدٍ مَعْلُومٍ ثُمَّ نَفَخَ فِیهَا مِنْ رُوحِهِ فَمَثُلَتْ إِنْسَاناً ذَا أَذْهَانٍ یُجِیلُهَا وَ فِکَرٍ یَتَصَرَّفُ بِهَا وَ جَوَارِحَ یَخْتَدِمُهَا وَ أَدَوَاتٍ یُقَلِّبُهَا وَ مَعْرِفَةٍ یَفْرُقُ بِهَا بَیْنَ اَلْحَقِّ وَ اَلْبَاطِلِ وَ اَلْأَذْوَاقِ وَ اَلْمَشَامِّ وَ اَلْأَلْوَانِ وَ اَلْأَجْنَاسِ مَعْجُوناً بِطِینَةِ اَلْأَلْوَانِ اَلْمُخْتَلِفَةِ وَ اَلْأَشْبَاهِ اَلْمُؤْتَلِفَةِ وَ اَلْأَضْدَادِ اَلْمُتَعَادِیَةِ وَ اَلْأَخْلاَطِ اَلْمُتَبَایِنَةِ مِنَ اَلْحَرِّ وَ اَلْبَرْدِ وَ اَلْبَلَّةِ وَ اَلْجُمُودِ وَ اِسْتَأْدَى اَللَّهُ سُبْحَانَهُ اَلْمَلاَئِکَةَ وَدِیعَتَهُ لَدَیْهِمْ وَ عَهْدَ وَصِیَّتِهِ إِلَیْهِمْ فِی اَلْإِذْعَانِ بِالسُّجُودِ لَهُ وَ اَلْخُنُوعِ لِتَکْرِمَتِهِ فَقَالَ سُبْحَانَهُ اُسْجُدُوا لِآدَمَ فَسَجَدُوا إِلاَّ إِبْلِیسَ اِعْتَرَتْهُ اَلْحَمِیَّةُ وَ غَلَبَتْ عَلَیْهِ اَلشِّقْوَةُ وَ تَعَزَّزَ بِخِلْقَةِ اَلنَّارِ وَ اِسْتَوْهَنَ خَلْقَ اَلصَّلْصَالِ فَأَعْطَاهُ اَللَّهُ اَلنَّظِرَةَ اِسْتِحْقَاقاً لِلسُّخْطَةِ وَ اِسْتِتْمَاماً لِلْبَلِیَّةِ وَ إِنْجَازاً لِلْعِدَةِ فَقَالَ فَإِنَّکَ مِنَ اَلْمُنْظَرِینَ إِلى‏ یَوْمِ اَلْوَقْتِ اَلْمَعْلُومِ ثُمَّ أَسْکَنَ سُبْحَانَهُ آدَمَ دَاراً أَرْغَدَ فِیهَا عَیْشَهُ وَ آمَنَ فِیهَا مَحَلَّتَهُ وَ حَذَّرَهُ إِبْلِیسَ وَ عَدَاوَتَهُ فَاغْتَرَّهُ عَدُوُّهُ نَفَاسَةً عَلَیْهِ بِدَارِ اَلْمُقَامِ وَ مُرَافَقَةِ اَلْأَبْرَارِ فَبَاعَ اَلْیَقِینَ بِشَکِّهِ وَ اَلْعَزِیمَةَ بِوَهْنِهِ وَ اِسْتَبْدَلَ بِالْجَذَلِ وَجَلاً وَ بِالاِغْتِرَارِ نَدَماً ثُمَّ بَسَطَ اَللَّهُ سُبْحَانَهُ لَهُ فِی تَوْبَتِهِ وَ لَقَّاهُ کَلِمَةَ رَحْمَتِهِ وَ وَعَدَهُ اَلْمَرَدَّ إِلَى جَنَّتِهِ وَ أَهْبَطَهُ إِلَى دَارِ اَلْبَلِیَّةِ وَ تَنَاسُلِ اَلذُّرِّیَّةِ اختیار الأنبیاء وَ اِصْطَفَى سُبْحَانَهُ مِنْ وَلَدِهِ أَنْبِیَاءَ أَخَذَ عَلَى اَلْوَحْیِ مِیثَاقَهُمْ وَ عَلَى تَبْلِیغِ اَلرِّسَالَةِ أَمَانَتَهُمْ لَمَّا بَدَّلَ أَکْثَرُ خَلْقِهِ عَهْدَ اَللَّهِ إِلَیْهِمْ فَجَهِلُوا حَقَّهُ وَ اِتَّخَذُوا اَلْأَنْدَادَ مَعَهُ وَ اِجْتَالَتْهُمُ اَلشَّیَاطِینُ عَنْ مَعْرِفَتِهِ وَ اِقْتَطَعَتْهُمْ عَنْ عِبَادَتِهِ فَبَعَثَ فِیهِمْ رُسُلَهُ وَ وَاتَرَ إِلَیْهِمْ أَنْبِیَاءَهُ لِیَسْتَأْدُوهُمْ مِیثَاقَ فِطْرَتِهِ وَ یُذَکِّرُوهُمْ مَنْسِیَّ نِعْمَتِهِ وَ یَحْتَجُّوا عَلَیْهِمْ بِالتَّبْلِیغِ وَ یُثِیرُوا لَهُمْ دَفَائِنَ اَلْعُقُولِ وَ یُرُوهُمْ آیَاتِ اَلْمَقْدِرَةِ مِنْ سَقْفٍ فَوْقَهُمْ مَرْفُوعٍ وَ مِهَادٍ تَحْتَهُمْ مَوْضُوعٍ وَ مَعَایِشَ تُحْیِیهِمْ وَ آجَالٍ تُفْنِیهِمْ وَ أَوْصَابٍ تُهْرِمُهُمْ وَ أَحْدَاثٍ تَتَابَعُ عَلَیْهِمْ وَ لَمْ یُخْلِ اَللَّهُ سُبْحَانَهُ خَلْقَهُ مِنْ نَبِیٍّ مُرْسَلٍ أَوْ کِتَابٍ مُنْزَلٍ أَوْ حُجَّةٍ لاَزِمَةٍ أَوْ مَحَجَّةٍ قَائِمَةٍ رُسُلٌ لاَ تُقَصِّرُ بِهِمْ قِلَّةُ عَدَدِهِمْ وَ لاَ کَثْرَةُ اَلْمُکَذِّبِینَ لَهُمْ مِنْ سَابِقٍ سُمِّیَ لَهُ مَنْ بَعْدَهُ أَوْ غَابِرٍ عَرَّفَهُ مَنْ قَبْلَهُ عَلَى ذَلِکَ نَسَلَتِ