مقاله درباره امام علی متن انگلیسی به همراه ترجمه

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تعداد صفحات: 8

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE LIVES OF THE FIRST IMAM

Amir al-mu’minin Ali -- upon whom be peace —was the son of Abu Talib, the shaykh of the Banu Hashim. Abu Talib was the uncle and guardian of the Holy Prophet and the person who had brought the Prophet to his house and raised him like his own son.

After the Prophet was chosen for his prophetic mission, Abu Talib continued to support him and repelled from him the evil that camefrome the infidels among the Arabs and especially the Quraysh. According to well-known traditional accounts Ali was born ten Years before the commencement of the prophetic mission of the Prophet. When six years old, as a result of famine in and around Mecca, he was requested by the Prophet to leave his father’s house and come to the house of his cousin, the Prophet. There he was placed directly under the guardianship and custody of the holy prophet.

A few years later, when the prophet was endowed with the Divine gift of prophecy and for the first time recevied the Divine revelation in the cave of Hira, as he left the cave to return to town and his own house he met Ali on the way. He told him what had happenend and Ali accepted the new faith. Again in a gathering when the Holy Prophet had brought his relatives together and invited them to accept his religion, he said the first person to accept his call would be his vicegerent and inheritor and deputy. The only person to rise from his place and accept the faith was Ali and the prophet accepted his declaration of faith. Therefore Ali Was the first man in Islam to accept the faith and is the first among the followers of the Prophet to have never worshiped other than the One God.

Ali was always in the company of the Prophet until the Prophet migrated from Mecca to Medina. On the night of the migration to Medina (hijrah) when the infidels had surrounded the house of the Prophet and were determined to invade the house at the end of the night and cut him to pieces while he was in bed. Ali slept in place of the Prophet while the Prophet left the house and set out for Medina.after the departure of the Prophet, according to his wish Ali gave back to the people the trusts and charges that they had left with the Prophet. Then he went to Medina with his Mother, the daughter of the Prophet, and two other women.

In Medina also Ali was constantly in the company of the Prophet in private and in Poblic. The Prophet gave Fatimah, his beloved daughter from Khadijah, to Ali as his wife and when the Prophet was creating bonds of brotherhood among his companions he selected Ali as his brother.

Ali was present in all the wars in which the Prophet participated, except the battle of Tabuk when he was ordered to stay in Medina in place of the Prophet. He did not retreat in any battle nor did he turn his face away from any enemy. He never disobeyed the Prophet, so that the Prophet said,” Ali is never separated from the Truth nor the Truth from Ali” .

On the day of the death of the Prophet,Ali was thirty-three years old. Although he was foremoset in religious virtues and the Most outstanding among the companions of the Prophet, he was pushed aside from the caliphate on the claim that he was too young and that he had many enemies among the people because of the blood of the polytheists he had spilled in the wars fought alongside the Prophet. Terefore Ali was almost completely cut off from public affairs. He retreated to his house where he began to train competent individuals in the Divine scieneces and in this way he passed the twenty-five years of the caliphate of the first three caliphs who succeeded the Prophet. When the third caliph was killed, people gave their allegiance to him and he was chosen as caliph.

During his caliphate of nearly four years and nine months, Ali followed the way of the Prophet and gave his caliphate the from of a spiritual movement and renewal and began many different types of reforms. Naturally, these reforms were against the interests of certain parties that sought their own benefit. As a result, a group of the companions (foremost among whom were Talhah and Zubayr, who also gained the support of A’ishah, and especially Mu’awiyah) made a pretext of the death of the third caliph to raise their heads in opposition and began to revolt and rebel against Ali.

In order to quell the civil strife and sedition, Ali fought a war near Basra, known as the “Battle of the camel,” against Talhah and Zubayr in which A’ishah, “the Mother of the Faithful,” was also involved he fought another war against Mu’awiyah on theborder of Iraq and Syria which lasted for a year and a half and is famous as the “Battle of Siffin”. He also fought against the Khawarij at Nahrawan, in a battle known as the “Battle of Nahrawan.” Therefore, most of the days of Ali’s caliphate were spent in overcoming internal opposition. Finally, in the morning of the 19th of Ramadan in the year 40 A.H, while praying in the mosque of Kufa, he was wounded by one of the Khawarij and died as a martyr during the night of the 21st.

According to the testimony of friend and foe alike, Ali had no shortcomings from the point of view of human perfection. And in the Islamic virtues he was a perfect example of the upbringing and training given by the Prophet. The discussions that have taken place concerning his personality and the books written on this subject by Shi’ites, Sunnis and members of other religions, as well as the simply curious outside any distinct religious bodies, are hardly equaled in the case of any other personality in history.

In science and knowledge Ali was the most learned of the companions of the Prophet, and of Muslims in general. In his learned discourses he was the first in Islam to open the door for logical demonstraction and proof and to discuss the “divine sciences” or metaphysics (ma’arifi ilahiyah). He spoke concerning the esoteric aspect of the Quran and devised Arabic grammar in order to preserve the Quran’s from of expression. He was the most eloquent Arab in speech (as has been mentioned in the first part of this book)

The courage of Ali was proverbial. In all the wars in which he participated during the lifetime of the Prophet, and also afterward, he never displayed fear or anxiety. Although in many battles such as those of Uhud,Hunayn,Khaybar and Khandaq the aides to the Prophet and the Muslim army trembled in fear or dispersed and fled, he never turned his back to the enemy. Never did a warrior or soldier engage Ali in battle and come out of it alive.Yet, with full chivalry he would never slay a week enemy nor pursue those who fled. He would not engage in surprise attacks or in turning streams of water upon the enemy. It has been definitively established historicall that in the Battle of Khaybar in the attack against the fort he reached the ring of the door and with sudden motion tore off the door and cast it away.

Also on the day when Mecca was conquered the Prophet ordered the idols to be broken. The idol “Hubal” was the largest idole in Mecca, a giant stone statue placed on the top of the Ka’bah. Following the command of the Prophet, Ali Placed his feet on the Prophet’s shoulders, climbed to the top of the Ka’bah, pulled “Hubal” from its place and cast it down.

Ali was also without equal in religious asceticism and the worship of God.

In answer to some who had complained of Ali’s anger toward them, the Prophet said, “Do not reproach Ali for he is in a state of Divine ecstasy and bewilderment.” Abu Darda one of the companions, one day saw the body of Ali in one of the palm plantations of Medina lying on the ground as stiff as wood. He went to Ali’s house to infrom his noble wife, the daughter of the Prophet, and to express his condolences. The daughter of the Prophet said, “My cousin (Ali) Has not died. Rather,in fear of God he has fainted. This condition overcomes him often.”

There are many stories told of Ali’s kindness to the lowly compassion for the needy and the poor, and generosity and munificence toward those in misery and poverty. Ali spent all that he earned to help the poor and the needy, and himself lived in the strictest and simplest manner. Ali loved agriculture and spent much of his time digging wells, planting trees and cultivating fields. But all the fields that he cultivated or wells that he built he gave in endowment (waqf) to the poor. His endowments, known as the “alms of Ali,” had the noteworthy in come of twenty-four thousand gold dinars toward the end of his life.

دانلود تحقیق درباره ی مالاریا

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فرمت فایل word  و قابل ویرایش و پرینت

تعداد صفحات: 10

تاریخچه مالاریا ( Malaria History )

مالاریا احتمالاَ بیماری قبل از پیدایش انسان است. منشاء احتمالی مالاریا باید قاره آفریقا باشد و با مهاجرت انسان در طی دوران نوسنگی به اروپا و آسیا ( خاورمیانه ، هند ، چین ) انتشار یافته است. انتشار این بیماری به آمریکای مرکزی و جنوبی احتمالاَ از آسیا در هزارة اول میلادی بوده است. نحوة ورود مالاریا به جزایر کارائیب هنوز نامشخص بوده و حدس بر این است که یا از طریق آمریکا بوده یا از طریق برده ها به آنجا برده شده است.

مالاریا یکی از قدیمی ترین بیماری شناخته شده انسانی بوده، یک نشانگان دوره ای که با تب و لرز همراه می باشد و احتمالاً توصیف مالاریا می باشد در ادبیات قدیمی چین ، سال 700 ق. م.، و در ورقهای پاپیروس، سال 1570 ق. م.، شرح داده شده است. همچنین مالاریا در نوشته های قدیمی به زبان سانسکریت، قرن 5 ق. م. در آسیا و چین شرح داده شده است.

بقراط(Hippocrates) پزشک یونانی در قرن پنجم قبل از میلاد به رابطه تب های متناوب با  مرداب ها اشاره نموده و علائم مالاریا نظیر بزرگی طحال را شرح داده است. تب ها بوسیله سقراط(Socrates) فیلسوف یونانی، قرن 4 ق. م.، به انواع مداوم، روزانه، سه گانه و چهارگانه تقسیم شدند و عامل سه نوع آخر مالاریا دانسته شد. در بررسیهای تاریخی علت شکست ارتش آتن در محاصره بندر سیسیلیان سیراکوس، سال 413 ق. م.، و علت مرگ اسکندر مقدونی(Alexandre) در سن 32 سالگی، سال 323 ق. م.، را بیماری مالاریا می دانند.

 نام مالاریا از دو لغت ایتالیایی " Malo " به معنی بد و "Aria " به معنی هوا گرفته شده است. به دلیل اینکه رم (Rome) در زمانهای قدیم شهری بوده که توسط زمینهای باتلاقی احاطه می شده است و انتقال مالاریا در اطراف این شهر را که به سبب ایجاد محل مناسب برای رشد پشه ها فراهم شده بود ناشی از هوای فاسد بر روی آب راکد می دانستند، لغت مالاریا به معنی آب و هوای بد به این بیماری اطلاق شد.

 بدنبال تحقیقاتی که در زمینه شناخت مالاریا در طی سالیان متمادی انجام شد سرانجام در سال 1880، پلاسمودیوم مالاریه بوسیله لاوران  (Laveran) شرح داده شد. در سال 1890 پلاسمودیوم ویواکس توسط گراسی و فلتی (Grassi & Feletti)   نامگذاری شد. در سال 1897 پلاسمودیوم فالسیپارم توسط ولچ  (Welch)  و در سال 1922 پلاسمودیوم اووال توسط استفنس  (Stephens) توصیف شدند.

رونالد راس(Ronald Ross)  بدنبال تحقیقاتی که به پیشنهاد سرپاتریک مانسون در سکندرآباد و کلکته هندوستان انجام داد توانست در سال 1897 اسپوروگونی یک گونه پلاسمودیوم بنام پلاسمودیوم رلیکتوم (Plasmodium Relictum)  که در پرندگان وجود داشت را در پشه کولکس کشف و گزارش دهد و به این طریق توانست انتقال مالاریا توسط پشه ها را اثبات کند. اثباتی که منجر به دریافت جایزه نوبل در سال 1902 گردید ، گرچه ایدة انتقال مالاریا توسط پشه ها قبلاَ توسط دیگران بخصوص توسط پزشک رومی ، لانسینی، در سال 1717 و آلبرت کینگ در سال 1882 پیشنهاد شده بود.

در همان زمان گراسی (Grassi) و همکاران چرخه جنسی مشابهی را در پلاسمودیوم فالسیپارم  و در پشه آنوفل گزارش دادند و پشه آنوفل را بعنوان پشه ناقل شناسایی کردند. چرخه خارج اریتروسیتی (Exoerythrocytic cycle)  مالاریا در انسان در سال 1948 بوسیله Shortt  و همکاران شناسایی شد.

کلمه مالاریا طبق  نوشته فرهنگ  آکسفورد برای اولین  بار در سال  1740 میلادی    توسط Horace Walpole  به عنوان یک لغت انگلیسی بکار برده شد و ظاهراَ در سال 1827 توسط John Callough 

در باره مالاریا  (About Malaria)

تعریف بیماری:

مالاریای انسانی که به نامهای پالودیسم(Paludism) ، تب حارَه ای، تب نوبه، تب و لرز، تب متناوب و تب جنگل هم  نامیده  می شود،  یک  بیماری  عفونی  خونی  است که توسط  تک یاخته ای از جنس پلاسمودیوم (Plasmodium)  ایجاد و توسط پشه های جنس آنوفل(Anopheles)   منتقل می گردد.

علائم مالاریا  (Paroxysm) :

علامت متداول بیماری تب شدیدی است که همراه با سایر علائم مربوطه (لرز ، عرق)  برای مدت 5 تا 8 ساعت ادامه یافته و سپس هر 2 یا 3 روز یکبار باز می گردد.  هر یک از این حملات، نیروی بیمار را به شدت تحلیل برده و باعث کاهش شدید فعالیت های  بیمار در طی دوران بیماری می گردد. حملات اولیه مالاریای حاد حداقل 2 هفته یا بیشتر طول  می کشد و در اثر ابتلاهای مکرر و همراه با پیشرفت بیماری ، کم خونی و بزرگی طحال حادث شده که در اکثر بیماران در طی یک یا دو هفته بعد از حمله اولیه می توان آنرا لمس نمود. در صورتیکه عامل ابتلا انگل گونه فالسیپارم باشد می تواند منجر به گلومرولونفریت ، افزایش شدید پارازیتمی، پدیده جداسازی مویرگی (Sequestration)، گیجی ، تشنج ، کاهش فشارخون ، ادم ریوی، علائم گوارشی (مثل استفراغ ، دردهای شکمی ، اسهال ، خونریزی روده ای) ، سندرم نفروتیک، کولاپس گردش خون، سیانوز و مرگ شود.

 دوره نهفتگی بیماری(Incubation Period)

بطور معمول از 9 تا 30 روز متفاوت است و ممکن است تا چندین ماه طول بکشد. گونه های پلاسمودیوم ویواکس در مناطق معین جغرافیایی دوره نهفته طولانی و بیشتر از 10 ماه دارند.

1 یا 2 روز قبل از شروع علائم تعداد کمی انگل در گردش خون ظاهر می شوند سپس با افزایش تعداد انگلها ، علائم مختلف شروع به تظاهر می کنند که عبارتند از سردرد ، خستگی ، دردهای مبهم در عضلات و استخوانها و مفاصل ، احساس لرز و تب که بدلیل شبیه بودن علائم با بیماریهای ویروسی مثل سرماخوردگی و آنفلوانزا(Influenza)   بخصوص در مناطق غیر آندمیک  تشخیص را بر مبنای این بیماریها می گذارند. در طی چند روز آینده وقتی که تعداد انگلها در خون به حد کافی رسید علائم مالاریا  بروز می نماید

به دلیل اینکه چـرخة انتقال مـالاریا از سه جـزء  انگـل مـالاریا، انسان  و پشـة آنوفـل ناقـل و تحت تـاثیر شرایط محیطی تشکیل شده است اقـدامات مبارزه می تواند برعلیة هــــر کدام از این اجزاء انجـــام پذیرد و قــطع این  زنـجیره  در هـــر قسمت  مانع  انتقـال  مالاریا می گردد.

1- مبارزه با انگل مالاریا:

        - پیشگیری با واکسن

        - پیشگیری دارویی

        - درمان افراد مبتلا به مالاریا

2- اقدامات حفاظت فردی:

بکار بردن روشهای حفاظت فردی موضوع مهم در جلوگیری از ابتلاء به مالاریا می باشد که می توان با آموزش این روشها به جامعه از ابتلاء آنان به مالاریا کاست. از انواع روشهای حفاظت شخصی میتوان روشهای زیر را نام برد: